1. Winter counts, kept by the Lakota people, mark each year in a Lakota band's history with a picture depicting an important event. For the year 1833, many Lakota winter counts show the same event: stars falling from the night sky.

True. In the winter of 1833, the Leonid meteor shower, visible each November, blazed with extraordinary strength. The falling stars caught the attention of people throughout North America, and many Lakota bands chose the shower as the event to stand for the year. Later in the 1800s, ethnologist Garrick Mallery (1831-1894) identified the pictures as standing for the meteor shower, allowing scholars to match the years of the winter counts with the European calendar.

2. Prior to introduction to European calendar systems, the Native peoples of Alaska used peg calendars, wooden calendars in which a peg was moved forward in a series of holes day by day to mark the passage of time.

False. Russian colonists and missionaries introduced peg calendars to the Native peoples of Alaska so that they could track the holy days of the Russian Orthodox Church. Russian contact with Alaskan cultures began in the 1700s, and settlement of the region, accompanied by cultural exchange, continued until 1867, when the U.S. purchased Alaska from the Russians. Peg calendars remained in use into the 20th century.

3. The Winnebago Native Americans recorded time using calendar sticks, in which notches were cut to signify important events, lunar cycles, years, and other units of distinction and division.

True. The Winnebago Native Americans did use sticks to record the passing of time in this manner. However, the use of calendar sticks was not limited to the Winnebago. Other Native American groups throughout North America used sticks, including the Pima, the Osage, and the Zuni. The markings on sticks and their daily and ceremonial use varied from region to region and people to people.

4. The Hopi calendar divides the year into four sections. Spirits known as katsinas (or kachinas) visit the Hopi people in two of these sections, alternating with the two sections free of the spirits.

False. The Hopi calendar divides the year into two halves, one beginning around the summer solstice (June 20th or 21st) and the other with the winter solstice (December 21st or 22nd). After the winter solstice, katsinam, benevolent spirits, visit the Hopi people, personated by Hopi men in masks and costumes. Following the summer solstice, the katsinam leave the Hopi again.

1. 1790
families with 11 or more members
families holding 2-4 slaves
avg. slaves per slaveholding family
free colored slaveholding families
persons of Scotch nationality
persons of Hebrew nationality

2. 1840
white persons 20 years of age and over who cannot read and write
scholars in primary and common schools
female slaves 55-99 years of age
free colored females under 10 years of age
men employed in newspaper production
persons employed in navigation of canals

3. 1870
male citizens 21 years of age and over
persons born in Africa
persons 10 and over who cannot read
total state taxation
public debt of the county
youths employed in manufacturing

4. 1880
persons born in China
Indians
colored persons
farms 500-999 acres rented for fixed money rental
average hours labor per week in iron and steel manufacturing
average youths and children employed in manufacturing

5. 1900
other colored females 5-20 years of age
illiterate foreign-born alien males 21 years of age and over
native white illiterates 10 years of age and over of native parentage
farms of colored owners and tenants
capital invested in buildings used in manufacturing
salaries of salaried officials, clerks, etc. in manufacturing

6. 1910
rural population
white persons born in asian turkey
native white males of voting age of mixed parentage
Indian, Chinese, Japanese and male of all other races of voting age
persons 15-17 years of age attending school
farms of foreign-born whites

Turkey

Difficult. Beef, pork, and lamb were rationed, except for organ meats (which could not be easily preserved and shipped to the troops). Poultry was not rationed because it, too, was difficult to preserve and ship, but turkey shortages were widespread during the holiday season of 1943. This was partly because farmers were obliged to offer their turkeys first to the government before selling them on the open market. Cooks who were not prepared to hunt wild turkeys were encouraged to roast a duck or a chicken for Thanksgiving.

Dressing

Not difficult. Flour and bread were not rationed. Nor were fresh vegetables—onions and celery, for example, or chestnuts. Fresh fish was not rationed either, so adding oysters would have been no problem, depending on one's proximity to the coast.

Cranberry sauce

Difficult. Fresh fruit was not rationed, so cranberries could be found in the market, but sugar was rationed (two lbs. per person per month). You could use rationed sugar to make cranberry sauce, but that would not leave much for the rest of the month. Having several people pool their ration was a possible solution. Canned cranberry sauce was available, but the government rationed almost all processed and canned, bottled, or frozen food, so it would cost precious points. Consumers were strongly urged to recycle metal cans for the war effort.

Green beans with cheese sauce

Difficult. Green beans (and other fresh vegetables) were not rationed (unless in cans), and milk for the cheese sauce was available. Hard cheese, however, was rationed because it was easy to ship overseas.

Mashed potatoes

Not difficult. Fresh vegetables were not rationed.

Rolls

Not difficult. Flour was not rationed; neither were fresh eggs.

Butter

Difficult. Butter was rationed, along with all other oils and fats. Margarine was somewhat easier to get than butter. Factories and farms focused on supplying the military first. Factories used oils and fats to manufacture soap and munitions (using glycerin). Whiskey distilleries turned to making industrial alcohol.

Fresh tropical fruit salad with cottage cheese

Difficult. Cottage cheese and other soft cheeses were not rationed, and fresh fruit was not rationed (although canned fruit was); however, fresh tropical fruit, such as bananas, was almost unavailable due to the disruption in Caribbean shipping by naval warfare. In addition, railroads and trucks were detailed to move military supplies. A Waldorf salad would have been a better choice.

Pumpkin pie

Difficult. Sugar and shortening were both rationed (some people used fat rendered from their rationed meat for shortening). Fresh pumpkin was freely available, but canned pumpkin was rationed because of the can.

Coffee

Difficult. Coffee was rationed until 1943, but even after that, it was scarce, as was tea. Other scarce products on the home front included chocolate and cigarettes, both of which were shipped overseas to the army.

The public was encouraged to grow produce in "Victory Gardens" and to conserve and collect metal, paper, and rubber. They were also encouraged to carpool whenever possible. Besides gasoline and automobiles, other rationed non-food items included clothing, shoes, typewriters, stoves, refrigerators, bicycles, tires, fuel oil, farm equipment, and wire fencing.

1. According to an 1850 dance and etiquette manual, it was acceptable for a woman to raise her dress to the ankle:

when crossing over a mud puddle. According to The lady's guide to perfect gentility: Raising the dress.— When tripping over the pavement, a lady should gracefully raise her dress a little above her ancle. With the right hand, she should hold together the folds of her gown, and draw them towards the right side. To raise the dress on both sides, and with both hands, is vulgar. This ungraceful practice can only be tolerated for a moment, when the mud is very deep.

2. Leads balance 2 bars to the right and 2 bars to the left, heel and toe, and chasse; leads half right and left, while the side couples balance, 4 bars; sides right and left while leads waltz on station, 4 bars; leads repeat the same to places, sides repeat to places.

Follow these instructions from the 1866 manual The ball-room monitor to find yourself dancing the:

Serious Family Polka

3. The manual American dancing master, and ball-room prompter (1862), authored by Elias Howe and "several eminent professors of dancing," described which of the following as the proper way for a gentleman to bow in the ballroom?

Stand in the third position, right foot in front; slide the right foot a little to the side. Draw the left foot in front of the third position. Incline the head and the body a little; let your arms fall easily and naturally. Rise in the third position, left foot in front.

4. According to Clog-Dancing Made Easy (1874), how long should one practice each day in order to master this skill?

2 hours. The manual advises, "After having mastered the form of the step, practise it at any convenient opportunity, though it is much better to have a specified hour each day. Two hours per day is little enough if the student is ambitious of excellence."

5. In Albert W. Newman's Dances of to-day (1914), these dance positions, respectively, are called:

Open Position; Yale Position

6. Which of the following, according to The Public Dance Halls of Chicago, was not a critique by the Juvenile Protection Association of the Chicago public dance halls in 1917:

". . . policewomen detailed to public dance halls have been seen dancing and therefore not affording protection to young girls and serving somewhat in the capacity of municipal chaperones." The Juvenile Protective Association held out hope that "when women were put upon the police force of Chicago, they would be detailed to public dance halls" to protect young girls but despite their many requests, policewomen did not regularly appear at dance halls. Policemen were criticized for "confin[ing] their attention to interfering when fights are in progress."

1. Many idioms and words we use today arose from maritime jargon. Which of the following is not true?

b. "Blackstrap" was a sailor's nickname for tar.

"Blackstrap," today used for thick molasses, was a nickname not for tar, but for a cheap wine typically served in the Mediterranean. Sailors stationed in the area were said to be "black-strapped."

As for the other terms, cooks were permitted to keep a portion of the "slush," or fat scum from boiling meat, in the ship's stores. They then sold the fat to tallow merchants, providing the cooks with a handy "slush fund." Plates were generally square in the British Navy, for easier storage—leading to our adoption of the phrase, "a square meal." Finally, the word, "junk" originated as a word for rope worn to the point that it was useless for anything beyond making fenders or friction-reducing sail cushioning (baggywrinkle). Eventually, according to the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, it also was used to refer to the meat, often of poor quality, fed to sailors, and then to anything discarded or broken.

2. There are many whales in the sea, and each had its own peculiarities noted by whalers. Which of the following is not true?

a. American whalers sought out the blue whale, as its immense size provided the most blubber, and therefore, profit.

Blue whales were unmanageable with American whaling technology. (Groups with more advanced tools, such as the Scandinavians, did hunt them.)

Right whales were given their name based on their by-products and the comparative ease of the kill. Sperm whales were similarly prized; however, they often dove deeply when injured. Secured to the line of a harpoon, attendant whalers had to sever the line fast, or follow the whale to the bottom. John Smith was interested in whaling in early America. However, he failed to locate any whale species considered valuable at the time.

3. Among seafaring tales, few are as well known as Herman Melville's Moby Dick. Which of the following is not true?

c. The name of Ahab's vessel, the Pequod, is taken from a type of indigenous vessel used in Rokovoko, the island from which the character Queequeg came.

The Pequod is likely named after the Pequot, a Native American group native to what is now Connecticut. Rokovoko (or Kokovoko in some versions) is a fictional island created by Melville.

Moby Dick is thought to be based on a real white sperm whale, known as Mocha Dick. As for the chapel in New Bedford, the pulpit was added after the release of the 1956 film Moby Dick, starring Gregory Peck. The pulpit was redesigned to meet the expectations of tourists, disappointed by the lack of the prominent film feature. Finally, the Coffin and Starbuck families intermarried in the 17th century, creating a long line of Quaker whalers. Both Coffin and Starbuck remained Nantucket surnames.

4. Different groups of people were considered bad luck on ships, and treated with suspicion when on board. Which of the following groups was not considered a risk?

b. One-eyed men

There was no stigma attached to sailors or passengers with one eye—although this was not true of the cross-eyed or "swivel-eyed."

Finns were believed to whistle the winds, have the second sight, or be in league with the Devil. In contrast, preachers, as men of God, could cause harm to vessels carrying them, as the sea was considered godless. Bringing a godly individual aboard was taunting the sea. Similar superstitions, although less common, applied to the Bible. Last, but not least, women were generally considered ill luck on board. However, a naked woman would bring favor to the voyage by shaming the sea into submission. This sparked the tradition of naked female figureheads. Women were also believed to be the best navigators.

5. One final question, a "grab bag" of whaling fact and fiction. Which of the following is not true?

a. A sea shanty is a type of dance, akin to a jig, in which the watch would take turns performing.

Sea shanties were, in fact, work songs, used to time tasks that required group coordination, such as furling sails. They featured call and response singing and were highly rhythmic.

Whaling expeditions chose to freeze their vessels into the ice knowing that they would be among the first whalers in prime hunting locations come the thaw. One of the better known captains involved in the practice, George Comer, also used the winter to conduct ethnographic studies of the local Inuit. Lewis Temple, an African American man, did invent the toggle head harpoon, which released a hook on the harpoon head when it entered the whale. This prevented the harpoon from easily sliding out of the wound, and revolutionized the whaling industry. Scrimshaw was a recognized whalers' art. Common forms included pie crimpers, walking sticks, and corset busks, frequently given to sweethearts as gifts.