The Reluctant President
Historian Doris Kearns Goodwin discusses President John Quincy Adams and the challenges of his presidency.
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Historian Doris Kearns Goodwin discusses President John Quincy Adams and the challenges of his presidency.
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Author David McCullough discusses his book John Adams, profiling the life of the second president of the United States. McCullough talks about the relationship between Adams and Thomas Jefferson, and also with his wife Abigail.
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Time Magazine's Christopher John Farley discusses the election of 1800 and the presidency of Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson's term in office is remembered for a war on terror, and the Louisiana Purchase, and a scandal.
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This iCue Mini-Documentary describes Chief Pontiac's attempts to push British and Americans out of Indian territory in the Ohio Valley. In a concession, the British government issued the Proclamation of 1763.
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EDSITEment, a website of the National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH), is spotlighting classroom materials related to the Public Broadcasting Series (PBS) series, The Presidents.
Materials include lesson plans on Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Harry Truman, and John Kennedy and link these lesson plans to related segments of online video from the series. They highlight major policies and events during each presidency within the context of the era. One lesson plan on Harry Truman, for example, examines origins of the Cold War, then discusses major policies such as the Strategy of Containment.
These lesson plans are directed towards grades 912, but incorporate materials that may be useful for younger students.
Match each of the selections below with the president (in the pull-down menu) who received or sent it.
1. John Adams, from Abigail Adams (pictured). Abigail Adams wrote this to her husband in a December 23, 1782 letter. The original letter can be read here, at the website of the Massachusetts Historical Society.
2. Woodrow Wilson, to Edith Bolling Galt (pictured). This is from a letter that widower President Wilson wrote from the White House on September 19, 1915, to Edith Bolling Galt, whom he would marry. The full text of the letter is in volume 34 of The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, ed. Arthur Stanley Link (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994), page 491.
3. Ronald Reagan, to Nancy Reagan (pictured). This is from a letter written on White House stationery by Ronald Reagan, to his wife Nancy on March 4, 1981. From Nancy Reagan, I Love You, Ronnie: The Letters of Ronald Reagan to Nancy Reagan (New York: Random House, 2002).
4. Theodore Roosevelt, about Alice Lee (pictured). This is from Roosevelt's diary entry of February 13, 1880. On that evening, he became engaged to Alice Lee, whom he married. On Valentine's Day, 1884, she died while giving birth to their daughter Alice. Roosevelt's mother died the same day. His diary entry for that day is simply a large black X with the words, "The light has gone out of my life." The Library of Congress has made scans of the original diary pages, available online here.
The relationship between John and Abigail Adams remains famous in U.S. history, largely due to the many letters they exchanged on issues both personal and political. In this Massachusetts Historical Society presentation, you can listen to politicians read aloud some of this correspondence; the full text of much of 1,198 of their letters can be read at the Adams Family Papers website.
For more on the First Ladies and their relationships to their husbands (and their accomplishments on their own), try a search in the upper right-hand corner of the website using the keywords "First Ladies." You'll find resources including a quiz on First Ladies' firsts while in office, Hillary Clinton's thoughts on the role of First Lady, a Library of Congress website featuring portraits of presidents and their wives, Ohio's National First Ladies' Library website, a Colonial Williamsburg re-enactor presenting Martha Washington's memories of the American Revolution, a National Portrait Gallery talk on the relationship between Mary and Abraham Lincoln, and more.
Every four years, television programs break for ads for those most American of products—the U.S. president and the ideals of democracy. For more than half a century, presidential candidates have used television ads to communicate their platforms and criticize their opponents. Decide whether the following statements are true or false.
1. The advertising executive who planned the first candidate television ad campaign had previously created the Coca-Cola "Passport to refreshment" campaign.
False. Advertising executive Rosser Reeves had previously created the "melts in your mouth, not in your hands" campaign for M&Ms. The campaign he planned for Eisenhower—20-second spots designed to run before or after popular television shows like I Love Lucy—featured "normal Joe" citizens asking Eisenhower questions about taxes, foreign policy, and other issues. Eisenhower answered in a brief, blunt, homey fashion, with the format giving the campaign its name: "Eisenhower Answers America." Prior to this campaign, presidential candidates had brushed off the potential of television advertising; following it, ads became an accepted and increasingly central aspect of campaigning.
2. In 1960, John F. Kennedy's television ad campaign included non-English-language advertisements.
True. JFK's 1960 campaign for the presidency, run by two different advertising agencies, included a multitude of television advertisements and a dizzying array of techniques and appeals. Several of the ads spoke out to specific demographics—including a spot in which Jackie Kennedy, speaking in uneven Spanish, assured voters that, in the face of the danger of communism, "Mi esposo siempre vigilará los intereses de todos los sectores de nuestra sociedad que necesitan la protección de un gobierno humanitario" (or, "My husband will always watch over the interests of all sectors of our society who are in need of the protection of a humanitarian government"). Other ads spoke to the African American community, assuring the public that Kennedy's Catholicism would not compromise his presidential duties.
3. As the Vietnam War continued despite his promises to end it, Richard Nixon's 1972 presidential ad campaign depicted him as stern and focused entirely on withdrawing troops from Vietnam.
False. Nixon's 1972 campaign for reelection cast him as a man of "compassion, courage, and conscience," concerned about many issues, including environmentalism and international diplomacy, as well as withdrawing from Vietnam. President Nixon, one ad declared, was willing to press for change, because "without change there can be no progress." The ads crafted the argument that Nixon, far from being cold and unapproachable, was personable and personally interested in a global push for peace and wellbeing nationally and internationally. Nixon won the campaign against South Dakota Senator George McGovern by a landslide.
4. A 1984 ad for Ronald Reagan's reelection used the threat of a bear in the woods to suggest the need for better gun control laws.
False. Though most of Ronald Reagan's ads stressed the economic wellbeing of the U.S., using montages of small-town Americans engaged in rituals such as weddings and buying new homes, one stuck out. The unusual ad showed a bear lurking in the woods; the accompanying narration suggested that the bear might or might not exist and might or might not be dangerous, but "since no one can really be sure who's right, isn't it smart to be as strong as the bear? If there is a bear?" Though the ad never explicitly states what the bear stands for, the advertisement's creators intended it to symbolize the Soviet Union. The ad's watchers, however, took it as commenting on any number of issues, including gun control and the need for change in environmental laws. Despite its ambiguity, the ad gained attention and later served as inspiration for an ad in George W. Bush's 2004 reelection campaign.
To watch all of the ads mentioned in this quiz, check out the Museum of the Moving Image's website The Living Room Candidate. Featuring more than 250 ads from all presidential campaigns since 1952, the site also presents commentary on each ad campaign, as well as detailed critical commentary on 15 ads selected as exemplary by the collection's curators and eight lesson plans for high school teachers.
For suggestions on using advertisements in the classroom, refer to Making Sense of Advertisements, a guide to primary source analysis by historian, professor, and author Daniel Pope.
Uncle Sam and Lady Liberty—for over a century, these two characters have personified the United States and popular conception of the nation’s ideals. Answer these questions about the roles these characters have played, including soldier, tyrant, police officer, financier, judge, deity, and champion of the oppressed.
1. What characters have political cartoonists used to represent the English counterparts to Uncle Sam and Lady Liberty?
c. John Bull and Britannia.
Wearing breeches and a Union Jack waistcoat, John Bull once served as the symbol for the British everyman, but evolved into a symbol of the country as a whole. Both Britannia, the goddess-like female figure of England, and John Bull often appeared in political cartoons with Uncle Sam or Columbia—another name for Lady Liberty.
2. This version of Uncle Sam appeared in a Denver Evening Post cartoon in November 1898. Uncle Sam is usually drawn as a skinny character. Why is he fat here?
b. He has just finished consuming overseas territories, such as Hawaii, Puerto Rico and the Philippines.
In a spree of imperialism, the United States, represented by Uncle Sam, has "consumed" Hawaii (annexed to the U.S. on July, 1898), as well as Puerto Rico and the Philippines (though the Treaty of Paris and the acquisition of these as territories was still in debate in November 1898). Now, Uncle Sam turns to the figure of Spain—the cartoon's caption has him say, "Now, young man, I'll attend to your case." With the Spanish-American War over, the glutted U.S. prepares to attend to Spain itself, not just its colonies.
3. When did political cartoonists draw Uncle Sam as a self-appointed global policeman?
d. During the "Imperialist" phase of U.S. foreign affairs, beginning prior to the Spanish-American War.
In the years leading up to the Spanish-American War and the U.S. metamorphosis into an imperialist world power, Uncle Sam was often drawn as a police officer. However, cartoonist Thomas Nast had already pictured Uncle Sam as a cop on the beat, policing U.S. political corruption, as early as 1888.
4. When Uncle Sam first appeared, he was drawn to resemble:
a. An old gentleman in knee breeches.
For several decades, Uncle Sam was indistinguishable from an earlier character, Brother Jonathan, who also represented the U.S., superceding Yankee Doodle. By the middle of the 19th century, the same figure-by then clad in striped pants, short jacket, and top hat—was sometimes called Uncle Sam and sometimes Brother Jonathan. By about 1875, "Brother Jonathan" had mostly disappeared.
5. When Columbia first appeared, she most closely resembled:
a. The goddess of liberty, Libertas.
Often depicted in the French Revolution, Libertas wore a soft "liberty" or "Phrygian" cap. As Columbia, she could also wear feathers on her head, a reference to Native Americans, or a star or crown. The name "Columbia" fell out of popularity after World War I, and the character gained the names "Miss Liberty" or "Lady Liberty."
The Library of Congress, as part of its American Treasures exhibit, looks at the history of the famous "I Want You" World War I image of Uncle Sam. It also showcases an image, by the same artist, of Lady Liberty.
Uncle Sam and Lady Liberty have appeared regularly in political cartoons since their creation. Vassar College's 1896: The Presidential Campaign includes a subsection just for cartoons containing Uncle Sam, as does Leo Robert Klein's The Red Scare (1918-1921) (see "Uncle Sam" under subject headings). Even Dr. Seuss took his turn drawing Uncle Sam: Try June 1942 in Dr. Seuss Went to War: A Catalog of Political Cartoons. You might also try a search for the term "uncle sam" in the New York Public Library's Digital Archive.
Once you've found some resources picturing these iconic personifications, take a look at Understanding and Interpreting Political Cartoons in the History Classroom for models of classroom use.
The debate over daylight saving time was almost as hot as the sun whose beams it aimed to save. Congressman Charles Rose said it was "Like cutting off one end of a blanket and sewing it to the other end to make the blanket longer." Are the following statements true or false?
1. Daylight Saving Time was created mainly to please farmers, who needed more daylight hours during the summer to finish their chores.
False. Farmers have almost universally opposed Daylight Saving Time. Its main proponents have historically been retail merchants, international financial traders, and industrialists. During World War I and World War II, Daylight Saving Time was temporarily adopted as a measure to conserve fuel and to increase industrial output. The first national scheme to implement Daylight Saving Time went into effect in 1917.
2. The adoption of Daylight Saving Time has been definitively shown to save the country fuel and energy.
False. The claim has often been made, but energy usage has been notoriously difficult to quantify. Savings in electrical energy during one part of the day, for example, can be offset by increased gasoline consumption, or increased use of coal or fuel oil at other times of day.
3. The move to create standard time zones across the U.S. was stimulated mostly by railroad companies, who needed to standardize their train schedules.
True. The simplification of long-distance transportation schedules was the driving force behind the establishment of standard time zones in the 19th century. The Railway General Time Convention of 1883 set standard time zones nationally.
4. The United States contains four time zones.
False. The U.S. crosses eight time zones: Atlantic (Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands), Eastern, Central, Mountain, Pacific, Yukon, Alaska-Hawaii, and Bering.
5. The Department of Transportation currently has responsibility for setting time zone boundaries in the U.S.
True. Previously, the responsibility for setting time zone boundaries lay with the Interstate Commerce Commission.
The Institute for Dynamic Educational Advancement (IDEA) offers an online exhibit that looks at the history of Daylight Saving Time in the U.S. and worldwide.
Search the Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs Online Catalog using the keywords "Daylight Saving Time" for more notices and political cartoons featuring Daylight Saving Time.
As the work of another school year begins, Labor Day reminds us to honor the nation's workers. Since the rise of industry, workers have used strikes and other forms of protest to demand change and recognition. Select the correct answer for each of the labor-related questions below.
1. What U.S. census data does this map portray?
a. The 1930 relative concentration of "totally unemployed persons registered" in each state.
b. The 1870 relative amount of "total capital invested (in dollars) in manufacturing" in each state.
c. The 1920 relative concentration of "manufacturing establishments" in each state.
d. The 1950 relative concentration of "employed females" in each state.
By 1920, industry had established itself as a fixture of the American economy and way of life, though its hubs remained in the Mid-Atlantic. New York continued to be a center of industry, and Illinois, with the continuing rise of Chicago as an urban industrial center, had become one, as well.
2. On May 4, 1886, a peaceful workers' rally in Chicago's Haymarket Square ended in death and confusion when a dynamite bomb was thrown into a line of approaching police officers. The Haymarket Affair received nationwide media attention and the trials of the alleged guilty parties went all the way up to the U.S. Supreme Court. Four of the accused were hung and a fifth committed suicide.
What reform was the rally supporting?
a. The removal of hazardous parts-manufacturing machinery from a McCormick Harvesting Machine Company plant.
b. The passing of a minimum-wage law in the state of Illinois.
c. The paying of compensation to workers who suffered debilitating injuries from repetitive factory work.
d. The institution of the eight-hour workday.
The speakers at the Haymarket Affair supported strikers who had engaged in a May 1 nationwide walkout to support an eight-hour workday. On May 3, the first workday after the walkout, police killed two workers outside a McCormick plant during a confrontation between scabs (temporary workers hired to replace strikers) and strikers. This event provided an impetus for the Haymarket rally.
3. On February 6, 1919, more than 60,000 Seattle workers refused to work, marking the high point of a series of strikes and unrest that started in January 1919. The first labor action to effectively shut down an entire city, this strike hoped to secure what result?
a. The reinstatement of workers ousted by returning soldiers.
b. A pay raise for the city's shipyard workers.
c. The cessation of all U.S. hostilities against the Bolshevik Red Army in Russia and of any support for forces opposing the Red Army.
d. A stop to the installation of new machinery that would reduce the work force necessary in the shipyards.
During World War I, the government imposed wage controls, keeping the wages of Seattle shipyard workers down even as the shipyards expanded through war production contracts. Following the war, the workers expected a raise in their wages; when denied, approximately 25,000 members of the Metal Trades Council union alliance went on strike. A general citywide strike followed, with about 35,000 other workers striking in support of the shipyard protest. The strike officially ended on February 11—though not before touching off a widespread "Red Scare."
4. On December 30, 1936, the workers at Flint, Michigan's General Motors automobile plant began a six-week long strike to press for better working conditions. Organized by the United Auto Workers, the strike used what relatively unusual technique to make its point?
a. Strikers not only stopped working during the strike, but left town entirely, taking their families with them.
b. Strikers remained entirely silent during the strike.
c. Strikers, instead of picketing outside of the factory, occupied the factory, preventing upper management and law enforcement from entering.
d. Strikers sabotaged the factory's power supply, re-sabotaging it whenever plant management repaired it.
Known as the Flint Sit-down Strike, this strike used techniques later adapted by the civil rights movement. On December 30, workers sat down at their places and refused to leave the factory for six weeks. Provided food and supplies by supporters, the workers repelled attempts by the police to drive them out and even initiated the surprise takeover of another plant in the last two weeks of the strike.
The map of the 1920 concentration of manufacturing establishments was generated by the University of Virginia Library's Historical Census Browser. The browser provides searchable census data for 1790 through 1960, with the option to visualize any data selections in maps such as the one above; all of the categories mentioned in Question One are categories available on the website. For Teachinghistory.org's review of the Historical Census Browser, go here.
Teachinghistory.org's reviews the Library of Congress's American Memory collection Chicago Anarchists on Trial: Evidence from the Haymarket Affair, 1886-1887 here.
The Seattle General Strike Project looks at the 1919 general strike through primary sources, including photographs, video clips, newspaper articles, and oral histories. The website is part of the University of Washington's larger Seattle Civil Rights and Labor History Project, collecting primary sources on civil rights and labor movements throughout the city's history. NHEC reviews the Project here.
Historical Voices provides a website on the Flint Sit-down Strike: Remembering the Flint Sit-down Strike: 1936-1937. The website provides close to 100 oral history interviews with strikers, as well as essays on the events of the strike. NHEC's review of the website can be found here.