Action in the Past: What Can Elementary Students Do?

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An elementary student listening to her teaching during class. NHEC
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In "Just Another Emperor," Peter Lee, Alaric Dickinson, and Rosalyn Ashby studied how students explain the actions of historical figures. Understanding how people from the past thought and believed, and relating that to the actions historical figures took, is central to the discipline of history. These authors wanted to know if elementary and middle school students were up to the task.

Understanding how people from the past thought and believed, and relating that to the actions historical figures took, is central to the discipline of history.

For a project funded by Great Britain's Economic and Social Research Council, Lee, Dickinson, and Ashby worked with 320 children aged 7–14. The kids were shown an illustrated story of the Roman invasion of Britain and asked to explain what led Emperor Claudius to invade Britain. They were given a host of reasons why the invasion was more trouble than it was worth, from the cost of the invasion to the resistance the Romans encountered, and then told Claudius had gone ahead and invaded anyway. How would these young students explain his actions?

This is what they found: Rather than answering that Claudius invaded Britain because he wanted to, most of the children, regardless of age, chose to offer explanations for his behavior.

Three Kinds of Explanations

The students' answers were grouped into three main categories.

  • Basic answers that explained Claudius’s actions in personal terms, i.e., Claudius was a man who wanted power.
  • Context-aware responses that focused on the fact that Claudius was an emperor who invaded Britain due to his leadership position.
  • Complex explanations that rested on a specific understanding of the situation in which Claudius operated. Such explanations recognized contextual problems or opportunities that Claudius faced, noting not only his title of emperor, but the fact that he was a particular emperor in a specific situation. These students saw the past as a different kind of world and sought to understand it.
Explanations Vary by Age Group

Older middle-school students relied less on personal explanations and more on situational analysis. In other words, Claudius’s actions were shaped more by historical context than individual desire. This was less true for younger students, who were more likely to rely on personal explanations. This told the researchers that understanding how historical context influences people's actions is learned over time, as students developed and practiced the skills of historical thinking.

. . . understanding how historical context influences people's actions is learned over time. . .
What Seven Year-Olds Can Do

Despite the fact that students aged 7 and 8 relied more on personal explanations, at a certain level they were still able to understand historical actions. Young children possess everyday knowledge of how people behave; even elementary-age children can come up with simple but plausible reasons for someone's behavior. These explanations can provide a jumping-off point for thinking about motives in a historical context.

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Print, "Claudius I, emperor of Rome," New York Public Library
In the Classroom
  • Identify a decision made by a historical figure—Claudius’s invasion of Britain, for instance—that you want your students to examine.
  • Seek out a range of sources that describe the context in which decision-makers were operating at the time.
  • Ask students to explain why historical figures made the decisions they did. You can give your students the readings first, and tell them to look for any factors that might have influenced these decisions. Or ask for explanations before you assign the selected readings. Next, have students read the sources and explain how the readings helped them come up with a better answer.
  • When students rely on personal explanations ("Because that’s what emperors do," etc.) help them see that specific historical factors can shape how people behave. Send them back to the texts; model for students how they can do this kind of historical detective work themselves.
Sample Application

The students in this study gave three kinds of explanations, depending on grade level, for why Roman Emperor Claudius invaded Britain. Some students' explanations focused on personal reasons:

Claudius wanted to invade Britain and if he did he could take over other [countries]…and then the world.

For others, the emperor's actions were influenced by his position. Asked why he invaded Britain, they explained this behavior would be expected from an emperor:

I think Claudius decided to invade Britain so he could prove he was a great Emperor; an Emperor that could be better than other Emperors.

Finally, there were some students who saw the specific situations in Britain and Rome as both a crisis and an opportunity:

I think that Claudius decided to invade Britain in AD43 because at that time there was peace in the rest of the empire. The Kings of Britain who were friendly towards the Romans were becoming few and far between. Maybe Claudius wanted to gain total control before wavering control was lost altogether.

As these excerpts show, explanations for historical action can vary widely among students, with the more advanced employing historical context along with other factors to give reasons for actions in the past.

For more information

See Teachinghistory.org's Teaching Guide Historical Agency in History Book Sets for more on historical thinking at the elementary-school level.

Bibliography

Peter Lee, Alaric Dickinson, and Rosalyn Ashby, "'Just Another Emperor': Understanding Action in the Past," International Journal of Educational Research 27 (3), 1995, 233–244.

Google Docs

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Logo, Google Docs
What is it?

Google Docs is a free, web-based word processing, spreadsheet, and presentation program that allows users to create, share, and collaborate to develop materials. Users can create documents, tables, and other presentations within Google Docs or upload existing files or create materials within the Google Docs program.

The real-time, collaborative feature lends itself to student group projects as well as to faculty and administrative use. Users determine who has access and editing privileges through invitational emails, and files are stored online, safeguarding against hard drive or power outage loss. Usage requires a Google account.

One Teacher's Experience: Megan Fix, Middle School Teacher
As a professional educator Google Docs has enabled me to create a "school to home classroom" that provides students with the opportunity for continued education outside of the typical school day. Google Docs allow students and teachers to be in consistent contact and can even be used for communication over the summer. Students appreciate this tool because it keeps them from having to worry about where they saved an item or if they misplaced a zip drive, as it permits them to store and access documents on a web based server so that they can be reached from any location all over the world.

A student is never able to say "I left it at home!"

My students have found Google Docs to be especially helpful for group projects. The application allows students to share file access and therefore, supporting their busy schedules, creates an open forum online for them to contribute to an assignment at a time that is most convenient for them—making group projects much more efficient and considerate of a students' time.

Google Docs supports the fast growing inclusion of technology and web based programs in the classroom for our innovative generation of students. Google Docs is every teachers dream—there is no longer a need for discs or drives! A student is never able to say "I left it at home!"

One Teacher's Experience: Julie Nelson, High School Teacher
Three weeks ago, I discovered Google does a lot more than conduct a search. It affords educators with the necessary tools to both plan and incorporate not only technology, but a social media component into their curriculum. Fortunately, my district provides the necessary technological tools; and the implementation has been easier and more rewarding than any other method that I have in my repertoire of teaching tools.

Three weeks ago, I discovered Google does a lot more than conduct a search.

To implement, I researched my state‘s educational standards relating to information and media. After researching, I built a blog, and typed handouts using Google Docs that accompanied links to assignments. In addition, I added bonus opportunities related to video links to contemporary issues.

The weekend prior to launching, I shared with my principal my plan. Fortunately he was a supporter and that day I sent home a letter to parents explaining the curriculum’s purpose and benefits, as well as my expectations of responsible online behaviors. All of the handouts I created using Google Docs. Each document I linked off of Blogger, also a free teaching tool on Google, which afforded my students access to all resources, handouts, and deadlines in one location.

My students are actively collaborating with their peers on assignments. The students are learning about the rise of industry and are completing a collaborative research project using Google Docs‘ presentation creator. In addition, they are completing the section assessment questions with a partner using Google Docs’ document creator.

Due to the fact that Google Docs, Blogger, and Google Calendar are web-based, students are afforded the opportunity to access their assignments anywhere, anytime. They are meeting online to work on material outside of class, which is tracked by time stamping on all contributions. It is an extension of the classroom and every level of learner is benefiting. My students are actually reporting it is “fun.” The digital divide is being bridged between the content and their culture. Students are meeting deadlines, corresponding via Gmail, and demonstrating more interest in learning.

Examples

Google offers a tour and how-to of its own program. High school teacher and blogger Richard Byrne put together a 40-page guide on using Google Docs in education, and 4th-grade teacher Meg Griffin describes how she uses Google Docs in our blog. You can also view a 10-minute video of how Google Apps work for the K-12 classroom.

Introduction to Google Docs

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Screencapture, Google Docs account, Google

In this official Google-created video, educators and other school personnel volunteer ways they've used Google Docs in their classrooms. The video provides some footage of student use, but, more, it presents a good general overview of what Google Docs is and does—including how it can prevent repetition of work and promote collaboration between students, even outside of the classroom.

Historical Thinking Interactive Poster!

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Historical Thinking Poster
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So how do we top the popularity of our historical thinking poster? We make a good thing even better! Check out Teachinghistory.org’s interactive version of the historical thinking poster for the 2012–2013 school year!

Just like the original poster, we created a version specifically for elementary classrooms and another for secondary grade use.

What will you find?

With links to lessons, primary sources, teaching ideas and more, the interactive poster helps guide you to great resources found on Teachinghistory.org, such as:

  • A quiz to test your knowledge of primary and secondary sources
  • A video on “What is Historical Thinking?”
  • Lesson plans focused on key elements of historical thinking
  • Ideas for teaching with text, photographs, art, maps, objects, and more
How can you use it?

Here are a few ideas to get you started:

  • Project the poster up on your smartboard and use it to introduce the concept of historical thinking
  • Select a different teaching resource from the poster each week to reinforce a particular historical thinking skill
  • Use the source information to model how to cite sources from the web
Want more?

Be sure to check out Teachinghistory.org’s interactive Civil War poster filled with teaching resources related to the primary sources depicted!

Anthony Pellegrino's Teaching with Class in Mind

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engraving, Beauregard's march, c1861, LOC
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One of the issues with which I struggled as a new teacher was the recognition of major themes prevalent in American history. In my first year of teaching I was often more concerned with getting through the next unit, next lesson, even the next class rather than thinking about the bigger picture. And my ignorance of the important themes of history did a disservice to my students. The event-focused history as I taught it failed to reveal connections and humanize the actors of history; it felt irrelevant to most of my students. The content, in fact, was presented as simply a series of inevitable events; each one distinct from the last, never to be considered again as we marched through time. As I became more comfortable in my teaching, I realized the importance of weaving salient themes of history, including race, class, and nationalism, throughout my lessons as a way to make the content more meaningful. Thus, I began the conscious effort of highlighting the manifestations of these themes in history for the benefit of my students. I discovered that the connections we made through class activities based on these themes allowed my students to see relationships within the content and gain a deeper understanding of the material.

Class Matters

The theme of class in America was one with which I felt a particularly deep connection, and as such, it became a thread that bound many of my American history lessons and units. Class issues and class conflict imbue nearly every event in American history. Of course, class was a significant concern as the Founding Fathers developed the framework that became our nation. And class issues are important to those studying the workers of the Industrial Revolution and the soldiers of the Civil War. And from there, class has become arguably even more important to our history. During the Gilded Age and the Progressive period, labor issues were rooted firmly in class. This theme continued through the 1930s, during which time most conflict in American society concerned clear class questions. And since the 1970s inflationary pressures and the struggles of the middle class have often been topics of historians, economists, and pundits. Today, we often hear about issues related to the economic crisis, class disparities, and the effects on the middle and lower class. To adapt an expression from professor and philosopher Cornell West—in all circumstances of history, class matters.

Understanding Class Through Song

As I have suggested in previous posts, using music to engage, inform, and otherwise foster meaningful learning has worked well for my students and me. Within the theme of class in particular, a rich bounty of songs exists and can provide that fundamental thread through which the theme of class can connect with many periods in history. Songs about class give voice to those we rarely listen to or read about in our textbooks, but can be a component of instruction important to historical understanding.

In early American history students and I listened to Yankee Doodle Dandy and assessed the class differences emerging between the colonists and the British. We reviewed class conflict and the emergence of technology during the Industrial Revolution through contemporary sources including Radiohead’s haunting Palo Alto in an effort to tease out some of the feelings of those fearful of what kind of life new technology would bring and the associated loss of jobs for craftspeople in the 19th century. Antebellum period songwriters including Stephen Collins Foster and Daniel Decatur Emmett provided glimpses into the lives of working-class people of the U.S. as we approached the Civil War.

Teachers can use the medium of music from various genres as a means to address class and class issues in a culturally significant way.

But for me it was music from the labor movement of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, which allowed me to deeply explore the theme of class in American history. Images depicting working conditions and songs written about the plight of the working class as they voiced their frustration and anger toward employers spoke to my students beyond the textbook. Folk musicians from Woody Guthrie, Phil Ochs, and Pete Seeger to Bob Dylan, Bruce Springsteen, and the band Bright Eyes have expressed some of these sentiments and I employed them generously. Bluegrass and country artists including Bill Monroe, Hank Williams, and Earl Scruggs also shared stories of the working class and the rural poor in their songs. And beyond the labor movement specifically, music from urban streets has voiced how not only race but class issues have contributed to the struggle toward equality. Artists including Gil Scott-Heron Public Enemy, Mos Def, Talib Kweli, and Common have all confronted class issues. Moreover, the genre of punk rock largely emerged from working-class ethos and often provides the voice for class struggles as viewed by youth culture. Teachers can use the medium of music from various genres as a means to address class and class issues in a culturally significant way.

Teaching history as more than a series of inevitable events is elemental to quality instruction. Providing opportunities for students to understand the enduring themes that are often left out of traditional, event-focused history can be a way to challenge those myopic narratives. And music focused on the theme of class seems especially prevalent and potent as a way with which to transcend history lessons that are disconnected and irrelevant to students. It is music that is accessible, relevant, and has the ability to engage and inform your students in ways they are not likely to forget.

For more information

Read up on 7-12 teacher Diana Laufenberg's take on teaching thematically, also in the blog.

Looking for more resources on the history of class and labor? In the Beyond the Textbook "Coal and the Industrial Revolution," historian Thomas G. Andrews examines the history of the coal industry. Teachinghistory.org has also reviewed more than 140 websites that include labor and class history resources.

The Progressive Era: A Group Effort

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Political Cartoon, Untitled [Progressive Fallacies], March 18, 1912, NARA
Question

I am a student teacher and I will be teaching the Progressive Era. I was wondering if there might be any ideas out there for a group class activity on this unit?

Answer

Looking through the NHEC website is always a good place to start when you’re searching for teaching materials. Our Lesson Plan Reviews section, for instance (listed under Teaching Resources), includes dozens of entries, including one on the Progressive Era by Bringing History Home. These lesson plans have already been vetted by our staff according to an evaluation rubric that is posted at the bottom of each review. Use our Lesson Plan Gateway to do a keyword search for lesson plans on the web. But do be a savvy consumer; while we have vetted the websites, we have not reviewed the individual plans.

Each lesson includes classroom activities, as well as primary sources from the Library’s American Memory collection.

Another useful approach when searching for lesson plans is to look in digital archives. The Library of Congress, for instance, has lesson plans for various grade levels, organized by historical theme. Among the several lessons on the Progressive Era are lessons on child labor and women’s suffrage. Each lesson includes classroom activities, as well as primary sources from the Library’s American Memory collection. The National Archives, similarly, has a whole host of lesson plans, including one on the Progressive Era that uses political cartoons to understand the period. The lesson includes historical background, teaching activities, and resources from the National Archives.

There are also a number of excellent websites, designed with teachers in mind, that pair lesson plans with digitized primary sources. The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, for instance, is always a good place to look for teaching ideas. They have four lessons on the Progressive Era—one for high school teachers, two for middle school teachers, and one for elementary school teachers—that include background information, suggested activities, and links to relevant materials. Digital History, a project hosted by the University of Houston, is another good resource for lesson plans. Their lesson plan on the Progressive Era includes historical background, links to primary documents, timelines, and teaching activities.

You might also search for lessons about the political activism of women when considering what to teach about the Progressive Era.

Finally, you might also look to other, more specialized sources for lesson plans. When focusing on the Progressive Era, for instance, you might look for a lesson on working conditions. A quick search turns up a PBS Frontline lesson that centers on Upton Sinclair’s seminal work The Jungle, and includes links to chapters of the book. You might also search for lessons about the political activism of women when considering what to teach about the Progressive Era. Women and Social Movements in the United States, hosted by the Center for the Historical Study of Women and Gender, is a great resource for teaching materials. They have a number of specific lesson plans, many of which examine Progressive Era reforms, like one on New York suffragists and electoral politics from 1919-1926.

Most of these lesson plans include some degree of group work. When they don’t, you can always make the adjustment yourself. When a plan calls for students to read primary sources, for instance, you might have them work in teams to conduct a group analysis.

Finally, as you go through these various websites looking for a lesson plan that you like, you might want to bookmark them in your web browser. All of them are worth returning to at some point.

John Adams: Great or Not?

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Engraving, Presidents of the United States. . . , Thomas Gimbrede, NYPL
Question

Was John Adams considered to have been a great president? How have historians assessed greatness in presidents?

Answer

A number of presidential historians have come to a consensus regarding the qualities that so-called great presidents have exhibited. For example, Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. distinguishes great presidents as those who "possess, or are possessed by, a vision of an ideal America." Another historian, Robert Dallek, similarly states "every effective president had a vision or even a series of visions about where he wished to lead the country." In addition to possessing a vision for the nation, great presidents have succeeded in establishing what Schlesinger describes as "a deep psychic connection with the needs, anxieties, dreams of people." They have achieved this bond using education and persuasion to convince Americans to consent to their own vision of the nation's future. Dallek correspondingly writes that effective presidents have needed to found their policies "on a shared national perception of what served the country's well-being." James MacGregor Burns likewise links leadership to the creation of a "collective purpose" measured "by the satisfaction of human needs and expectations."

In addition to vision, Schlesinger observes that while moments of crisis have presented presidents with "opportunities for bold and imaginative action," even without such crises, "forceful and persuasive presidents—Jefferson, Jackson, Theodore Roosevelt, Ronald Reagan—are able to impose their own priorities on the country." Dallek adds pragmatism and credibility as essential qualities of the most effective presidents.

The Traditional Assessment
Much of the lingering criticism of Adams can be traced to his re-election campaign of 1800. . .

Using the above mentioned criteria, John Adams has not traditionally been viewed as one of the great presidents of the United States. Much of the lingering criticism of Adams can be traced to his re-election campaign of 1800, which he lost to Thomas Jefferson, becoming the nation's first one-term president. During the campaign, he was criticized by both the Republicans, who supported Jefferson, and his own party, the Federalists. Popular historian David McCullough has described the campaign, which resulted in Thomas Jefferson's ascendancy to the presidency, as "a contest of personal vilification surpassing any presidential election in American history." During the 1800 campaign, Adams was called a monarchist, a warmonger, and an indecisive leader during wartime. He was tarred as a vain eccentric with an "ungovernable temper." He was attacked for his conservative outlook and for his tendency to act irresponsibly and capriciously without consulting his cabinet and advisors. His enemies spread rumors that he was insane, and like Jefferson, he was branded as a libertine.

Adams was also blamed both for actions he took during his term in office and for a supposed turn in political philosophy to favor aristocracy and monarchy over republicanism and democracy due to his opposition to the French Revolution. During the subsequent "quasi-war" with France, Adams's signing into law the Alien and Sedition Acts, which he did not initiate, became a liability that tarnished his reputation. His call for new taxes and the creation of a standing army alienated many at the time. With Jefferson's victory characterized as the "Revolution of 1800," Adams's association with the extinguished Federalist party has been proof for many that he was on the wrong side of history.

Recent Redemption

However, recent biographies have sought to reconsider Adams and his legacy. One biographer, John Patrick Diggins, believes that the assessment of Adams "as something of a loser" stems from a misunderstanding of the legacies of both Adams and Jefferson. Another, C. Bradley Thompson, contends that Adams was consistent in his political thought and did not adopt anti-republican views as his enemies had charged. In addition, John Ferling emphasizes Adams's decision to send a peace mission to France despite opposition within his administration and party—an action that many believe cost him the 1800 election—as not only "a courageous deed, an act of statesmanship that saved countless lives," but as an act that "spared the new nation unimaginable dangers—dangers to the survival of its republican experiment as well as to the very existence of the Union." These authors and others assert that Adams's success at preserving the nation's liberty despite his failings as a political leader point to his enduring legacy. However, some of the lingering criticism stems from Adams himself, writing, "I am not, never was, & never shall be a great man."

Bibliography

Burns, James MacGregor. Leadership. New York: Harper & Row, 1978.

Dallek, Robert. "Splendid Misery." Review of The American Presidency: An Intellectual History, by Forrest McDonald. Reviews in American History 22 (December 1994): 561-66.

Diggins, John Patrick. John Adams. New York: Times Books, 2003.

Ferling, John. John Adams: A Life. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1992.

Knott, Stephen. "Review Essay: The Legacy of John Adams." Review of John Adams, by David McCullough, and John Adams and the Founding of the Republic, edited by Richard Alan Ryerson. Presidential Studies Quarterly 32 (June 2002): 428-31.

McCullough, David. John Adams. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001.

Schlesinger, Arthur M., Jr. "Editor’s Note." In Diggins, John Patrick. John Adams. New York: Times Books, 2003, xvii-xx.

Thompson, C. Bradley. John Adams and the Spirit of Liberty. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 1998.

Interactive World History

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Map, Antique Map 11, 1652, Nicolas Visscher, Flickr Creative Commons
Question

I am a mother of three young children nine, eight, and five. I would like to teach them world history. Would you have a good book to suggest? Any activities to make the learning interesting?

Answer

Your children are fortunate that you are anxious and willing to share the joys and wonders of history with them at an early age! The following suggestions (and materials) should assist in launching their voyage through time in a manner that is fun, informative, and thought-provoking.

Activities

A great way to start is with a children's globe or map. The children can find their location and the "new" locations as you introduce them to different places and times.

You and your children can construct your own timeline as you study different periods in history.

To introduce the concept of “time” try the book titled A Street Through Time. This work traces the changes in one street—across 12,000 years. You and your children can construct your own timeline as you study different periods in history. Have them make a "time capsule" of their favorite objects. As you progress through each era, they can construct new "time capsules." Drawings or pictures of objects can be placed in a shoebox "time capsule." These can be "visited" and additional objects can be added to the time capsule during these "visits."

Why not create a "Wonder Wall?" Your children can post flags or question marks about a time period or subject that intrigues them. They can post names/drawings of people that they've come across onto a timeline that you've created—different colors for fiction and nonfictional characters.

Art projects are a terrific way to engage children. They can:

  • create "time hats" to wear each time they travel to another time period.
  • make "passports" that are stamped upon arrival at each destination.
  • use a large box to create their own "Wayback Machine."
  • use clay to make a pyramid, cotton gauze to make mummies when studying ancient Egypt.
  • dress a doll in togas, saris, or armor; they can make "togas" for themselves as you read about ancient Rome. Some of the Reader's Theatre books can assist with this.
  • create and eat foods from other times.
You can add to the magic by dressing up as a typical mother from one of these time periods and reading them relevant fiction.

You can also have your children study biographies of historical figures and then create a fictional biography of a child from that period. This is a great way to teach children to determine the difference between fiction and nonfiction. You can add to the magic by dressing up as a typical mother from one of these time periods and reading them relevant fiction.

Mythology is a fascinating subject for children and very useful in teaching about different times and places. Norse, Greek, Roman, Chinese, African—tales from around the world will delight children as well as pique their curiosity about different times and places.

Series books by Dorling Kindersley (DK), including Eyewitness as well as The Magic Treehouse series, and Magic Wagon books are rich with information and text.

Let me also put in a plug for your local library. The librarians there will know what relevant works are in their collections and be happy to share them with you and your children.

Happy travels!

For more information

Books
Kingfisher Voyages. Ancient Egypt. Simon Adams, 2006.
Goodtime Travel Agency. Series, Linda Bailey and Bill Slavin, 2000-2004.
Children's Pictorial Atlas of the World. Alison Cooper, 2008.
Ancient Rome. Lorrie Mack, 2009.
See-Through Mummies. John Malam, 2007.
Castle. David McCaulay, 1982.
Tikki-Tikki Tembo. Arlene Mosel and Blair Lent N.p.: Square Fish, 2007.
The Best Book of Ancient Rome. Deborah Jane Murrell, 2004.
Ben Hurry. Doug Peterson, 2006.
Short Tales Greek Myths. 2008.
Pet Sitter: Dixie in Danger. Julia Sykes, 2009.
Ancient Egyptian Fashions. Tom Tierney, 1996.
Michelangelo Bunnyrroti. Andrew Toffoli, 2006.

Reader's Theater
African Legends, Myths, and Folktales for Readers Theatre. Anthony D. Fredericks, 2008.
Atrahasis: World Myths (Building Fluency Through Reader's Theater). Stephanie Paris, 2009.
The Frog Who Became an Emperor: World Myths. Stephanie Paris, 2009.

Other
Ancient Greek Costumes Paper Dolls. Tom Tierney, 1998.
Elizabethan Costumes Paper Dolls. 1996.
Medieval Costumes Paper Dolls. 1996.
Renaissance Fashions. 2000.

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