What is it?

Higher education in the United States has been shaped by history and has played a role in shaping history. Around the time of the American Revolution, college was almost exclusively for white men and, even then, often only for wealthy white men. Over time, women, Black Americans, the middle class, working class and poor Americans gained access to higher education, but this was not a simple story of gradual and steady reform. Instead new types of schools with new missions were founded at various points in the past, some were successful and some were not. Some still exist today, and all have changed over time emphasizing different courses of study and catering to new groups of students. This guide explores different types of schools and how they’ve developed over time. 

Key points:

• This activity will take one 90-minute period or two 45-minute periods. It is appropriate for a high school U.S. history or government classroom, but can be modified for a variety of learners.
• Students will analyze, interpret, and evaluate primary sources. 
• Students will learn more about the variety of colleges and universities in the United States and how they’ve changed over time. 
• Guiding Question: What forms does higher education take in the United States?

Introduction

Charles Dorn has summarized the history of higher education in the U.S: “what we conveniently call ‘higher education’ today is in actuality a composite of institutional types that developed over the course of 200 years”. The different types of institutions include public institutions, both large and small, private colleges, some religiously affiliated, some not, Historically Black Colleges and Universities, women’s colleges, and community colleges - among others. While depictions in popular culture and even in news media outlets often focus on very elite universities, the vast majority of students do not attend these elite schools and are instead enrolled at the variety of institutions discussed above. The goal of this guide is for students to learn more about higher education today by looking at its history and specifically at the different types of institutions, why they were founded, and how that history shapes the present status of higher education.     

 

Hook/Bellringer

At the beginning of class ask students to name colleges or universities that they have heard of and to add where did they hear about them. Write answers on the board or have students write the answers on the board. You can stop adding names after you have about 10 schools. Alternatively students could answer through a web platform like Padlet which could be projected on the screen. 

 

Once there is a collection of schools on the board ask students:  What do you know about these schools (ie are they public or private, 4 year or 2 year, larger or smaller etc.)

 

Introduce the activity by noting that there are a wide variety of institutions in higher education each with a different history. They were established for different reasons to meet different needs and they have changed over time to respond to changing student populations and to the world around them. Using primary sources —  photographs of various schools — students will virtually “tour” different campuses to better understand these schools. Divide students into 6 groups based on institution type: Community Colleges and Junior Colleges, Large Public Universities, Regional Public Universities, Historically Black Colleges and Universities, Private Liberal Arts Colleges and Universities, and Women’s Colleges. When they’re in their groups provide the sources and the brief description of their type of school. Direct them to use the sources the virtually “tour” these schools. Ask them to take notes on what they notice:

 

What kind of facilities and buildings do you see? 

What can you tell about the kinds of academic programs at these schools?
What kinds of activities are offered? (IE Sports? Recreation opportunities? Socializing opportunities? Museums?) 

Do you think this is a state school or a private school? What makes you think so? 

What other questions come to mind?  

Digital Research Activity 

Students will then choose a specific school to research historical sources.  Using the historical newspaper database Chronicling America to find where the school is mentioned. They will create an informal “Then and Now” presentation based on similarities and differences they notice about the school in the past and in the present. 

 

Tips for searching Chronicling America

• Look up the school on Wikipedia to see if it had a different name in the past. Use an older name as a search term on Chronicling America. 
• Many colleges and universities advertised in newspapers so searching for the name of the school plus “courses” can be helpful for finding these. 
• Search results can be filtered by state — this can be a way to narrow down the search results when searching for a specific school.

 

Primary Sources

 

Women’s Colleges

Women’s colleges are typically private liberal arts colleges founded to provide women with a 4 year college education when opportunities for women in higher education were limited. Many women’s colleges were founded between 1870 and 1890. The number of women’s colleges in the United States grew until the mid-1960s when there were over 250 in the United States. Since that time the number of women’s colleges has decreased with the schools either closing, becoming co-ed, or merging with a men's college. As of 2024, there were 26 women’s colleges in the United States that fulfill a unique role educating and empowering women.  

 

Mount Holyoke College

Inside the Emily Williston Library on the campus of Mount Holyoke College, a private women's liberal arts college in South Hadley, Massachusetts | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2019690140/

View of the campus at Mount Holyoke College, a private women's liberal arts college in South Hadley, Massachusetts | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2019690144/

View of the campus at Mount Holyoke College, a private women's liberal arts college in South Hadley, Massachusetts  | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2019690145/

Smith College 

Scene at the boathouse on the campus of Smith College in Northampton, Massachusetts, one of the "Seven Sisters" schools, an alliance of East Coast liberal-arts colleges created to provide women with education equivalent to that provided in the men-only Ivy League  | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2019690193/

Scene at the botanic garden on the campus of Smith College in Northampton, Massachusetts, one of the "Seven Sisters" schools, an alliance of East Coast liberal-arts colleges created to provide women with education equivalent to that provided in the men-only Ivy League | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2019690192/

Pond and conservatory on the campus of Smith College in Northampton, Massachusetts, one of the "Seven Sisters" schools, an alliance of East Coast liberal-arts colleges created to provide women with education equivalent to that provided in the then men-only Ivy League   | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2019690187/

 Elmira College (founded as women’s college, now co-educational)

Gillett Memorial Hall, completed in 1891 on the campus of Elmira College in Elmira, New York  | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2018700052/

Entrance arch on the campus of Elmira College in Elmira, New York  | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2018700071/

 

HBCUs

 

Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) include both private and public schools that were established before the 1964 Civil Rights Act with the mission of providing higher education to Black Americans. There are 101 HBCUs in the United States that carry out the mission of educating Americans regardless of race and preserve Black American culture and history.  

 

Grambling State University

A massive, horizontal "G" sculpture on the campus of Grambling State University, a pre-eminent HBCU (historically black college or university) in rural Grambling, Louisiana | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020744158/

 

The McCall Dining Center on the campus of Grambling State University, a pre-eminent HBCU (historically black college or university) in rural Grambling, Louisiana | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020744159/

The Frederick C. Hobdy Assembly Center on the campus of Grambling State University, a pre-eminent HBCU (historically black college or university) in rural Grambling, Louisiana  | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020744160/

 

The home team's cheering section overlooking the 50-yard line at Eddie Robinson Stadium, the home field of the Grambling Tigers football team at Grambling State University, one of America's pre-eminent "HBCU" (historically black colleges and universities) | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020744093/

 

University of Arkansas Pine Bluff 

 

Identifying sign and sculpture at the University of Arkansas Pine Bluff in Pine Bluff, Arkansas | Library of Congress |  www.loc.gov/item/2020741546/

 

The Walker Center multipurpose research hall at the University of Arkansas Pine Bluff in Pine Bluff, Arkansas | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020741547/

The Dawson-Hicks Hall dormitory at the University of Arkansas Pine Bluff in Pine Bluff, Arkansas | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020741567/

A clock that is the centerpiece of the University of Arkansas Pine Bluff in Pine Bluff, Arkansas | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020741724/

 

Lion sculpture on the campus of the University of Arkansas Pine Bluff in Pine Bluff, Arkansas, whose athletic teams are the Golden Lions | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020741566/

 

 

Regional Public

Regional public universities educate a large number of students in higher education. Many were founded as Normal Schools or Teachers Colleges and they continue to provide education to students in all areas of the country who may not have access to larger schools or private schools. According to the American Association of State Colleges and Universities these schools enroll a disproportionately higher number of students of color, of low-income backgrounds, first generation, Pell Grant recipients, community college transfers, working adults, and veterans compared with other public and private institutions.

 

Southern Oregon University

A springtime view of an academic building at Southern Oregon University in Ashland | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2018698087/

A cyclist passes before the library building at Southern Oregon University in Ashland | Library of Congress | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2018698081/

Stone artwork array on the grounds of Southern Oregon University in Ashland  | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2018698083/

 

Metal-art sculpture on the grounds of Southern Oregon University in Ashland | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2018698082/

 

University of Texas-El Paso

Building on the campus of the University of Texas-El Paso | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2014631177/

Building on the campus of the University of Texas-El Paso  | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2014631178/

Building on the campus of the University of Texas-El Paso | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2014631182/

The Chihuahuan Desert Garden and campus buildings of the University of Texas at El Paso | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2014630702/

Glass wall and stairway at the University of Texas at El Paso | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2014632620/

Glass wall at the University of Texas at El Paso | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2014632619/

Gateway sign at the University of Texas at El Paso | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2014632616/

 

The University of Texas at El Paso | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2014632618/

 

 

West Chester University

This is a ram statue, though not a golden one, in front of the Old Library building on the campus of West Chester University in West Chester, Pennsylvania. The school's sports teams are nicknamed the Golden Rams. The Department of Anthropology and Sociology, and the Institute for International Development are housed in the 1902-vintage building | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2019689476/

This is a ram statue, though not a golden one, in front of the Old Library building on the campus of West Chester University in West Chester, Pennsylvania. The school's sports teams are nicknamed the Golden Rams. The Department of Anthropology and Sociology, and the Institute for International Development are housed in the 1902-vintage building | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2019689477/

The Old Library building on the campus of West Chester University in West Chester, Pennsylvania. The Department of Anthropology and Sociology, and the Institute for International Development are now housed in the 1902-vintage building | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2019689478/

Large Public 

Large public universities enroll tens of thousands of students. Many started as Land Grant Schools, a federal program that began in 1862 with the Morrill Act and the Second Morrill Act of 1890. Funds were raised by selling western lands, most of which had been taken from Native Americans, sometimes even without a formal treaty. (see Landgrabu.org for more). Land grant schools were established to promote applied science in agriculture and industry but now most large public universities offer a wide range of degrees in including liberal arts. Many of these institutions also have a strong research focus. 

 

University of Michigan

University of Michigan Campus, Ann Arbor, Michigan. Aerial view | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020714690/

University of Michigan Campus, Ann Arbor, Michigan. Tower | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020714700/

Power Center for the Performing Arts, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan. Exterior | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020714689/

Angell Hall, an academic building at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor. It is after James Burrill Angell, who was the university's president from 1871 to 1909. The Angell Hall Observatory is located on the fifth floor roof of the building, which opened in 1924. On March 24, 1965, Angell Hall was the site of the first "teach-in" protesting the Vietnam War. More than 3,000 people attended the all-night program of seminars, rallies and speeches | Library of Congress |  www.loc.gov/item/2020722994/

The 1936 Burton Memorial Tower on the campus of the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor. Named for former university president Marion Leroy Burton, the carillon tower, designed by Albert Kahn, now (as of 2019) houses the Baird Carillon, classrooms, and faculty offices for members of the Department of Musicology | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020722990/

The University of Michigan Art Museum, in the 1910 Alumni Memorial Hall on the campus in Ann Arbor. Its original purpose was threefold: to provide a space for the university's growing art collection, open space for the graduate school, and honor alumni who had served in the nation's wars to that date | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020722995/

Abstract impressionist artist Mark di Suero's 53-foot-high "Orian" sculpture enlivens the campus of the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor. Initially exhibited at Chicago's Millennium Park, it arrived on campus on long-term loan in 2008. Ten years later t was removed because of drainage repairs, which provided an opportunity to send the sculpture back to the artist's studio in New York for conservation work and a fresh coat of vibrant reddish-orange paint | Library of Congress | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020722993/

 

University of Wyoming

The sports arena and auditorium at the University of Wyoming in Laramie, Wyoming | Library of Congress | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015632803/

S.H. Knight's Tyrannosaurus sculpture stands near the entrance to the Geological Museum at the University of Wyoming in Laramie, Wyoming | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015632813/

 

Cooper House, home to the American Studies program at the University of Wyoming in Laramie, Wyoming | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015632809/

D. Michael Thomas's "Breakin' Through" statue at the University of Wyoming in Laramie, Wyoming. The statue evokes the university's "Cowboys" sports nickname ("Cowgirls" in the case of women's teams), and the state nickname as The Cowboy State | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015632797/

The Marian H. Rochelle Gateway Center at the University of Wyoming in Laramie, Wyoming, a convocation center that the university calls its "front door" | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015632795/

Engineering Hall, home to the engineering department at the University of Wyoming in Laramie, Wyoming | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015632814/

The Arts and Sciences building at the University of Wyoming in Laramie, Wyoming | Library of Congress | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015632812/

The College of Agriculture building at the University of Wyoming in Laramie, Wyoming | Library of Congress | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015632811/

The College of Business building at the University of Wyoming in Laramie, Wyoming | Library of Congress  | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015632810/

University of Nebraska-Lincoln

Louise Pound Hall on the University of Nebraska campus in Lincoln, the capital city of the midwest-U.S. state, houses (as of 2021) the Department office of Child, Youth and Family Studies and the office of the College of Education and Human Sciences | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2021758197/

Once the college engineering building, Richards Hall on the University of Nebraska campus in Lincoln, the capital city of the midwest-U.S. state, now (as of 2021) houses the School of Art and the Eisentrager-Howard Art Gallery | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2021758196/

Since 2003, the Van Brunt Visitors Center has served as the unofficial "front door" to the campus of the University of Nebraska in Lincoln, the capital city of the midwest-U.S. state | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2021758202/

Japanese artist Jun Kaneko's 2009 "Untitled" ceramic and galvanized-steel sculpture outside the Sheldon Museum of Art on the campus of the University of Nebraska in Lincoln, the capital city of the midwest-U.S. state | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2021758200/

Artist Ed Carpenter's "Harvest" sculpture greets those approaching the Pinnacle Bank Arena, the home of the University of Nebraska men's and women's basketball teams in Lincoln, the capital city of the midwest-U.S. state of Nebraska | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2021758193/

These four columns have become a landmark on the campus of the University of Nebraska in Lincoln, the capital city of the midwest-U.S. state | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2021758203/

The Sheldon Museum of Art, on the campus of the University of Nebraska in Lincoln, the capital city of the midwest-U.S. state | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2021758198/

 

Private, Liberal Arts

 

Liberal arts colleges offer 4 year degrees and also emphasize a broad education and general knowledge including science, history, literature, math, and languages. Private schools tend to be smaller and many, although not all, were originally founded as religious institutions.  

 

Amherst College

The campus quadrangle, colloquially called the "quad," at Amherst College, a private liberal-arts college in Amherst, Massachusetts | Library of Congress

https://www.loc.gov/item/2019690237/

The Keefe Campus Center, the student activities building at Amherst College, a private liberal-arts college in Amherst, Massachusetts | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2019690233/

The Keefe Campus Center, the student activities building at Amherst College, a private liberal-arts college in Amherst, Massachusetts | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2019690234/

Davis & Elkins College

Campus view of Davis & Elkins College in Elkins, West Virginia. The Albert Hall science building is in the foreground | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015631689/

Campus view of Davis & Elkins College in Elkins, West Virginia. The Albert Hall science building is in the foreground | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015631691/

 

Graceland mansion on the campus of Davis & Elkins College in Elkins, West Virginia | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015631695/

Halliehurst mansion on the campus of Davis & Elkins College in Elkins, West Virginia | Library of Congress | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015631694/

Booth Library on the campus of Davis & Elkins College in Elkins, West Virginia | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015631692/

 

St. Olaf College

A woodsy fall view of a portion of the campus of St. Olaf College, a private, liberal-arts college in Northfield, Minnesota | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020723532/

A woodsy fall view of a portion of the campus of St. Olaf College, a private, liberal-arts college in Northfield, Minnesota | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020723535/

A woodsy fall view of a portion of the campus of St. Olaf College, a private, liberal-arts college in Northfield, Minnesota | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020723538/

A portion of Boe Memorial Chapel on the campus of St. Olaf College, a private, liberal-arts college in Northfield, Minnesota | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020723536/

A portion of Boe Memorial Chapel on the campus of St. Olaf College, a private, liberal-arts college in Northfield, Minnesota | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020723539/

Mellby Hall, the oldest residence hall on the campus of St. Olaf College, a private, liberal-arts college in Northfield, Minnesota  | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020723530/

Mellby Hall, the oldest residence hall on the campus of St. Olaf College, a private, liberal-arts college in Northfield, Minnesota | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020723531/

Boe Memorial Chapel on the campus of St. Olaf College, a private, liberal-arts college in Northfield, Minnesota | Library of Congress

https://www.loc.gov/item/2020723537/

The Theater Building on the campus of St. Olaf College, a private, liberal-arts college in Northfield, Minnesota | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020723533/

 

Community Colleges and Junior Colleges

According to the U.S. Department of Education, almost half of all students in higher education are enrolled in Community Colleges or Junior Colleges. Over half of adults with a 4 year degree began their education at a community college. Community colleges and junior colleges also enroll a high number of first generation students and lower income students. While the first institution of this type was established in 1901 with the founding of Joliet Junior College (JJC) in Joliet, Illinois, the largest growth of community colleges occurred after 1945 as college attendance rose overall the federal and state government encouraged the development of schools that could bridge the gap between high school and college, provide training in trades, and serve as cultural centers for communities. 

 

Western Wyoming Community College

 

Buildings at Western Wyoming Community College in Rock Springs | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2017688034/

Buildings at Western Wyoming Community College in Rock Springs | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2017688035/

Buildings at Western Wyoming Community College in Rock Springs | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2017688036/

Potomac State College of West Virginia University

Davis Hall, a dormitory and conference center at Potomac State College of West Virginia University, a two-year junior college affiliated as a division of West Virginia University located in Keyser, West Virginia | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015631540/

Science Hall at Potomac State College of West Virginia University, a two-year junior college affiliated as a division of West Virginia University located in Keyser, West Virginia | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015631537/

Catamount statue at Potomac State College of West Virginia University, a two-year junior college affiliated as a division of West Virginia University located in Keyser, West Virginia | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015631534/

Academy Hall at Potomac State College of West Virginia University, a two-year junior college affiliated as a division of West Virginia University located in Keyser, West Virginia | Library of Congress | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015631538/

Reynolds Hall, a dormitory at Potomac State College of West Virginia University, a two-year junior college affiliated as a division of West Virginia University located in Keyser, West Virginia | Library of Congress | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015631539/

The 1919-vintage Administration Building at Potomac State College of West Virginia University, a two-year junior college affiliated as a division of West Virginia University located in Keyser, West Virginia | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015631542/

Mary F. Shipper Library at Potomac State College of West Virginia University, a two-year junior college affiliated as a division of West Virginia University located in Keyser, West Virginia | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015631535/

Potomac State College of West Virginia University, a two-year junior college affiliated as a division of West Virginia University located in Keyser, West Virginia | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015631536/

Overview of Potomac State College of West Virginia University, a two-year junior college affiliated as a division of West Virginia University located in Keyser, West Virginia | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015631541/

What is it?

Immigration is a hotly contested issue that brings up strong reactions on both sides. Immigrants form communities that are integrated with communities of other immigrants and Americans who were born in the U.S. They live in cities and in rural areas and in all regions of the country. Increasingly they come from all over the world. This guide supports students as they examine sources related to immigration from Asia and look for connections and commonalities between these communities and their own.      

Key points:

• This activity will take one 90-minute period or two 45-minute periods. It is appropriate for a high school U.S. history or government classroom, but can be modified for a variety of learners.
• Students will analyze, interpret, and evaluate primary sources. 
• Students will learn more about the variety of immigrants who have made their home in the United States. 
• Guiding Question: What can we learn about photographs of immigrant communities from Asia in the U.S.?  

Introduction

Immigration is a commonly taught topic in United States history courses especially in the 19th century through the early 20th century, but there are fewer resources available on immigration from the 1960s to the present day. In addition, the resources that exist mostly focus on immigration from Mexico and Latin America. Immigration from Asia has been a major portion of immigrants to the United States especially since 2000. Immigrants from China, India, the Philippines, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, South Korea, Bangladesh among many other nations are not a monolith. Some came under visas designed to attract immigrants for specific professional jobs while others are refugees fleeing civil war or repressive governments. Economic hardship in their home countries was also a “push” factor. These immigrants have settled in many different areas in the United States as well changing communities in a variety of ways as immigrants have always done. This is a nuanced history and in this guide students will examine primary sources consisting of photographs from the communities where immigrants from Asia have settled in the United States. Using close analysis students will find patterns and themes so that they better understand the impact and contributions of this growing segment of immigrants. 

Hook/Bellringer

Post the following question on the board: According to the American Immigration Council there are 44.9 million immigrants (foreign-born individuals) living in the United States, can you guess the top five countries these individuals come from?

This could be set up via a number of online quiz tools like Kahoot or just on the white board with paper obscuring the answers. An unlabeled bar graph indicating the percentages below would work well too. 

Provide students with a “bank” of possible countries. Such as Germany, Italy, Brazil, China, Russia, Mexico, Argentina, Cuba, India, Nigeria, Egypt, Philippines, Australia, El Salvador.  

1. Mexico (24 percent of immigrants)
2. India (6 percent)
3. China (5 percent)
4. Philippines (4 percent)
5. El Salvador (3 percent)

Give the students a chance to guess and reveal answers as they are named. If they can not name all of them, give them 5 or so chances, and then reveal the rest of the answers. 

Note that after Mexico the next three countries of origin are Asian countries. It might also be helpful to point these countries out on a map. 

Brief discussion: What about this list surprises you? Are there countries that are higher than you thought? Lower? 

Inform the class that immigration from Asia has been increasing as a percentage of overall immigration to the United States. It wasn’t until the 2000s that more than one Asian country was even a top ten country of origin for immigrants to the U.S. In the next activity they will learn more about how immigration from Asia has changed the United States. 

 

Primary Source Analysis - Community Connections

The primary sources below are all photographs that depict Asian immigrant communities in the United States. They include photos of people engaged in a wide variety of activities including playing cards, selling and buying clothes, getting a haircut, playing chess, buying food, celebrating, socializing. There are also a variety of buildings including markets, restaurants, houses of worship, clothing stores, nail salons, laundromats, pharmacies, hardware stores and more. Together they provide a glimpse into the variety of ways individuals from the largest continent on earth have made their homes in the United States. The goal of engaging with these sources is for students to make connections between the activities that occur in their communities with what they see in these photographs of immigrant communities. 

1. Make the photos available to students either through links or by printing them out and arranging at different stations in the classroom. 
2. Have students select three photographs and complete the Primary Source Analysis Tool for each. [A Library of Congress Teacher’s Guide for analyzing photographs can be found here.]  Further tips for examining sources:
   1. Encourage students to slow down and examine the photos carefully
   2. Zoom in on the photos and take note of details. 
   3. What words do they see - either in English or another language?
   4. What products are for sale in the stores?
   5. Are there people in the photos? What do they appear to be doing?
3. Once they’ve completed their 3 analysis sheets, put them in pairs and small groups. Working together they will come up with connections between the photos and their own communities. Encourage students to think creatively. There might not be a Hindu temple in their community, but what places of worship are there? People might not gather to play cards, but what do they do for leisure and to socialize? Have one student per group compile a list of these Community Connections. 
4. After working in their groups for 15 minutes, the groups can share out with the class the connections they made. 

 

Primary Sources

 Kim, a Korean immigrant, showing a suit to Michael, Jinny's, Broadway, Gary, IN | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2022650724/

 

Vietnamese immigrants playing cards outside Tan Phat Noodle House, 3301 Westfield Ave., Camden, NJ 2015 | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020698722/

 

Hookah lounge in Hamtramck, Michigan. Known in the 20th century as a vibrant center of Polish-American life and culture, Hamtramck has continued to attract immigrants, especially Yemenis and Bangladeshis. Hookah lounges are places where patrons share communal hookahs, or water pipes | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020722865/

 

A Middle Eastern-themed interior design shop in Hamtramck, Michigan. Known in the 20th century as a vibrant center of Polish-American life and culture, Hamtramck has continued to attract immigrants, especially Yemenis and Bangladeshis | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020722860/

 

A barber named Hani gives a customer, Ali, (both gave only their first names) a haircut in Hamtramck, Michigan. Known in the 20th century as a vibrant center of Polish-American life and culture, Hamtramck has continued to attract immigrants, especially Yemenis and Bangladeshis | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020722862/

Store in Hamtramck, Michigan, selling clothing, including burqas, or enveloping outer garment worn by women in some Islamic traditions. Known in the 20th century as a vibrant center of Polish-American life and culture, Hamtramck has continued to attract immigrants, especially Yemenis and Bangladeshis | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020722864

 

Nail-care shop in Hamtramck, Michigan. Known in the 20th century as a vibrant center of Polish-American life and culture, Hamtramck has continued to attract immigrants, especially Yemenis and Bangladeshis. In 2015, its city council became the first city council in the United States with a majority of the members of the Muslim faith | Library of Congress| www.loc.gov/item/2020722863/

 

The Makka Hi Fruit Market in Hamtramck, Michigan. Known in the 20th century as a vibrant center of Polish-American life and culture, Hamtramck has continued to attract immigrants, especially Yemenis and Bangladeshis. In 2015, its city council became the first city council in the United States with a majority of the members of the Muslim faith | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020722869/

 

A colorful tire shop in Hamtramck, Michigan. Known in the 20th century as a vibrant center of Polish-American life and culture, Hamtramck has continued to attract immigrants, especially Yemenis and Bangladeshis. In 2015, its city council became the first city council in the United States with a majority of the members of the Muslim faith | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020722824/

 

The Al-Qamar pizza parlor in Hamtramck, Michigan. Known in the 20th century as a vibrant center of Polish-American life and culture, Hamtramck has continued to attract immigrants, especially Yemenis and Bangladeshis. In 2015, its city council became the first city council in the United States with a majority of the members of the Muslim faith | Library of Congress |  www.loc.gov/item/2020722826/

 

Burk's Igloo ice-cream stand in Hamtramck, Michigan. Known in the 20th century as a vibrant center of Polish-American life and culture, Hamtramck has continued to attract immigrants, especially Yemenis and Bangladeshis. In 2015, its city council became the first city council in the United States with a majority of the members of the Muslim faith - original digital file | Library of Congress |  www.loc.gov/resource/highsm.60598/

 

Masjidun-Nur, a Muslim place of worship in Hamtramck, Michigan. Known in the 20th century as a vibrant center of Polish-American life and culture, Hamtramck has continued to attract immigrants, especially Yemenis and Bangladeshis. In 2015, its city council became the first city council in the United States with a majority of the members of the Muslim faith | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020722828/

 

Clothing store in Hamtramck, Michigan. Note the welcoming sign in three languages in the window. Known in the 20th century as a vibrant center of Polish-American life and culture, Hamtramck has continued to attract immigrants, especially Yemenis and Bangladeshis. In 2015, its city council became the first city council in the United States with a majority of the members of the Muslim faith | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020722866/

 

 

 

Crivijit, originally from India, working for Uber, Myrtle Ave. at Wyckoff Ave., Brooklyn | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2021653446/ 

 

The Hindu Temple and Cultural Center, near the town of Madrid in Boone County, Iowa | Library of Congress |  www.loc.gov/item/2016630539/

 

One of several elaborate carvings outside the Hindu Temple and Cultural Center, near the town of Madrid in Boone County, Iowa | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2016630538/

 

 

The OK Boss Asian grocery stores in Windom, Minnesota. As of 2020, Asian restaurants and stores proliferated in small, southern Minnesota towns | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020723773/

 

Chinese food shops in the Lakewood neighborhood, Chicago, Illinois | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/resource/afc1981004.145/?sp=1

 

 

Yoga studio in the Lakewood neighborhood, Chicago, Illinois | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/resource/afc1981004.145/?sp=11

 Chinese women playing cards. Bayard St. and Baxter St., Chinatown, Manhattan | Library of Congress |  www.loc.gov/item/2022642962/

 

Elderly men playing Chinese chess. Columbus Park, Bayard St., Chinatown, Manhattan | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2022885526/

 

 

Jolllybee, Filipino Restaurant, 609 8th Ave., Manhattan | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2021643708/

 

Filipino street vendors, 67-12 Roosevelt Ave., Queens | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2022885550/

 

Baptism celebration, Kabayan Bistro, a Filipino Lounge, 6909 Roosevelt Ave., Queens | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2024696323/

 

The Fil Am float, representing the Filipino American Association of Portland & Vicinity, Inc., passes by in the Fred Meyer Junior Parade, one several events in Portland, Oregon's, annual Rose Festival | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2018699497/

 

Vietnamese laundromat and Pizzeria, Saunders St. at N. 27th St., Camden, NJ, 2023 | Library of Congress |  www.loc.gov/item/2024695773/

 

 

Vietnamese laundromat and Mexican Taqueria, Saunders St. at N. 27th St., Camden NJ, 2006 | Library of Congress |  www.loc.gov/item/2020702024/

 

Korean musicians, Broad St. at Market St., Newark, NJ | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2021635295/

 

Entrance sign at the Assi Plaza Asian grocery and Korean and Chinese specialty store in the Flushing neighborhood of the New York City borough, or county-like jurisdiction, of Queens | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2018701181/

 

Scene in Lower Manhattan's Chinatown neighborhood in New York City | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2018699994/

 

Scene in Lower Manhattan's Chinatown neighborhood in New York City | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2018699995/

 

Scene in Lower Manhattan's Chinatown neighborhood in New York City | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2018699996/

 

 

Scene in Lower Manhattan's Chinatown neighborhood in New York City | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2018699997/

Scene in Lower Manhattan's Chinatown neighborhood in New York City | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2018699998/

 

Scene in Lower Manhattan's Chinatown neighborhood in New York City | Library of Congress |  www.loc.gov/item/2018700000/

 

Scene in Lower Manhattan's Chinatown neighborhood in New York City | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2018700001/

 

Scene in Lower Manhattan's Chinatown neighborhood in New York City | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2018699941/

 

Fish market in Lower Manhattan's Chinatown neighborhood in New York City | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2018699985/

 

Produce stand in Lower Manhattan's Chinatown neighborhood in New York City | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2018699986/

 

Scene in Lower Manhattan's Chinatown neighborhood in New York City | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2018699987/

 

Scene in Lower Manhattan's Chinatown neighborhood in New York City | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2018699988/

 

Some of the hundreds of participants at the 10th-annual Hmong New Year Celebration in downtown Chico, California, pose | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2013631121/

General Tips for Teaching Controversial Subjects

• Center activities on primary sources. Primary sources are tangible evidence that allow students to engage directly with history. These primary sources in particular were preserved and digitized by the Library of Congress because they were deemed important to the history of the United States.
• Discussion and analysis of these sources can be wide ranging, but within each class those discussions can always be turned back to the source itself.
• The sources are also, by definition, only pieces of a puzzle. They bring us closer to understanding the past but there is always room for doubt and uncertainty.  
• Questions, Observations, and Reflections should come from students. These are primarily student-directed learning activities. It is the instructor's role to create a space for inquiry and empower students to drive the inquiry.
• It may help to remind students at the outset that it is normal for different individuals to come to different conclusions, even when we are looking at the same sources. Further, it would be strange if we all agreed completely on our interpretations. This can normalize the strong reactions that can come up and enables educators to discuss the goal of historical research, which is to hopefully go beyond the realm of individual  perspective to access a fuller understanding of the past that takes multiple perspectives into account.
• Teaching historical topics that involve violence and other trauma can be traumatic for some students as well. Providing students with previews of what content will be covered and space to process their emotions can be helpful. The following video series from the University of Minnesota contains further tips for teaching potentially traumatic topics: https://extension.umn.edu/trauma-and-healing/historical-trauma-and-cultural-healing.

 

What is it?

For students in high school today the events of September 11 belong to the past, but they may very likely encounter the yearly commemorations of those events on television or social media or they may have seen a physical memorial either in their area or while traveling. The past regularly enters our daily lives in this way and this is distinct from history. This guide explores commemorations, memorials, and monuments of the September 11 attacks to help students identify and recognize how they engage with the past how that process differs from history. 

Key points:

• This activity will take one 90-minute period or two 45-minute periods. It is appropriate for a high school U.S. history classroom, but can be modified for a variety of learners.
• Students will analyze, interpret, and evaluate primary sources. 
• Students will learn more about the events of September 11 and also how those events exist in public memory. 
• Guiding Question: What's the purpose of commemorations and memorials 

Introduction

History is the process by which we try to better understand the past, but history is not the only way human beings use the past or make meaning out of past events. This guide looks at another process of remembering the past through commemorations and memorials. Specifically it looks at the commemoration of and memorials to the September 11, 2001 attacks in the United States in order to help students identify the differences between commemorating past events and studying those events historically. While the events of 2001 seem quite recent for some of us, they are far enough in the past to begin to be considered as history — especially for students in high school today who are too young to have been alive when these attacks occurred. Analyzing how various commemorations and memorials engage with the past will help students recognize the difference between this engagement and history while also understanding better the place the events of September 11, 2001 in public memory. 

Hook/Bellringer

Write on the board: What is a commemoration? Can you think of examples? 

If students are struggling with this prompt, add related words that they might be more familiar with such as “memorials” or “monuments”. Explain that memorials and monuments are specific kinds of commemorations. Have students come up with 5-10 examples of their own and have them note what event is being commemorated by the memorial.

Show the following images to prime their memory. 

Washington Monument, Washington, D.C. | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2010641711

Aerial view of the Lincoln Memorial, Washington, D.C. | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2010630765

Memorial Day, Vietnam Memorial, Washington, D.C. | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2010630875

Note: Teachers may also want to include memorials and monuments from their community or region. 

Background/Context

[This can be read to class, assigned for the class to read ahead of time, or you can substitute another resource such as the FAQ from the National 9/11 Memorial and Museum.] 

On the morning of September 11, 2001, a group of 19 men forcibly took control of four separate commercial jet airliners. The first two planes struck each of the World Trade Center's Twin Towers [office buildings with more than 100 floors each] in New York City and a third aircraft struck the Pentagon — the headquarters for the U.S. Department of Defense — in Arlington, Virginia. A fourth aircraft crashed into an open field in Somerset County, Pennsylvania after the passengers and crew, having learned about the earlier attacks via phone calls they were able to make to family and friends, attempted to take control of the aircraft away from the attackers. In all 2,996 people died in the attacks. It was later learned that the attackers were associated with an extremist group, al Qaeda, then based in Afghanistan. The response from the U.S. government led to an invasion of Afghanistan from which troops were only withdrawn in 2021. The attack was also used to justify the 2003 invasion of Iraq. The attacks resulted in changes within the U.S as well, including new laws such as the 2001 Patriot Act, changes to airline security procedures, and even changes to the structure of the federal government with the creation of a new cabinet department, the Department of Homeland Security. The full effects of these attacks are still being felt today both in the U.S. and around the world. 

[While you read the above background, you may want to display the images in the blog post below that show the lower Manhattan skyline before and after the attacks.] 

The World Trade Centers in an Evolving Skyline | Picture This | blogs.loc.gov/picturethis/2016/09/the-world-trade-centers-in-an-evolving-skyline/

 

 

Activity

Have your students examine the images below in the Primary Sources section. This can be done digitally with the links provided below or the sources can be printed out for students to examine physically. Each source is a photograph of a memorial to the September 11 attacks. The memorials come from different locations across the U.S. and were built at different times. Some are informal handmade memorials put in place immediately after the attacks. Others were planned monuments built several years later. Students should examine these sources closely and then work together to sort them into those memorials that were placed at the site of the attacks (either at the World Trade Center Towers in New York, the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, or the field near Shanksville, Pennsylvania). Students should then divide the photos into those that were placed in the immediate aftermath of the attacks (2001-2002) and those that were constructed later (after 2002). Students can make use of the information that accompanies the images on the Library of Congress page to make these determinations about time and location. 

This sorting can be done physically with printouts on four tables or desks or digitally with platforms such as Google slides or Padlet.

Once these have been sorted, prompt students to look for patterns by examining the photos closely. Provide the following questions for students to consider as they examine the images:

• What if anything does the memorial communicate about the September 11 attacks?
• What themes do they express or communicate? 
• Do they look similar to any other memorials you have seen? Which ones and in what way?
• How do the memorials and commemorations differ by time and location?

 

These questions could form the basis of a whole class discussion or students could discuss them in groups of 3-5 and report out. If the course is online students could post their responses in a discussion board in their LMS. 

Optional Short Essay Assignment for homework (1-2 paragraphs)

What purpose do you think memorials and commemorations serve? What’s their purpose? How might historians engage with the events of September 11? What sources would they use to understand the event and its impact?

 

Primary Sources

 The 9/11 Memorial in Overland Park, Kansas, a Kansas City suburb, includes informational signs about the four aircraft destroyed, and their passengers killed, in the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center in New York, the Pentagon in Washington, and in a hijacking over rural Pennsylvania by terrorists on September 11, 2001 | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/pictures/collection/highsm/item/2021756265/

 

Memorial to the brave souls of Flight 93 that crashed in Shanksville, Pennsylvania on September 11, 2001 after a terrorist attack. The plaque was donated by a private citizen named Hebert Erdmenger in 2002. | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/pictures/collection/highsm/item/2011631500/

Informal tributes posted at the first, temporary memorial site in Shanksville, Pennsylvania, to those who perished on United Flight 93, which crashed during an attempt by passengers to recapture the plane, which had been hijacked by terrorists on 9/11/01 | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/pictures/collection/highsm/item/2011633153/

Steel beam and rubble from the Twin Towers, displayed at the Milwaukee County War Memorial Center in Milwaukee, Wisconsin | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2016631019/

 

Citizen artwork at an informal memorial to the victims who died on United flight 93 when they attempted to overpower hijackers during the terrorist attacks of 9/11/2001 | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/pictures/collection/highsm/item/2011634321/

 

South Bend, Indiana's, 9/11 Memorial, erected by South Bend fire department personnel in St. Patrick's Park | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2016631954/

 

A piece of steel from the World Trade Center, destroyed by a terrorist attack on Sept. 11, 2001 in New York City. It is displayed as a memorial at the Texas State Cemetery in Austin, Texas| Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/pictures/collection/highsm/item/2014632438/

 

Memorial gate, where people from all over the world have left momentos to honor the victims of the September 11, 2001 terrorist hijacking of Flight 93. Shanksville, Pennsylvania| Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/pictures/collection/highsm/item/2011631553/

 

Part of an informal memorial to the victims of United Flight 93, which crashed in a nearby field after passengers fought with hijackers who had taken the plane and directed it to Washington during the terrorist attacks of 9/11/2001 | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/pictures/collection/highsm/item/2011633798/

 

Part of an informal memorial to the victims of United Flight 93, which crashed in a nearby field after passengers fought with hijackers who had taken the plane and directed it to Washington during the terrorist attacks of 9/11/2001 | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/pictures/collection/highsm/item/2011633961/

 

Portland, Maine's, modest memorial to those lost in the terrorist attacks on the United States on 9/11/2001, at Fort Allen Park at the busy harbor on Casco Bay in Maine's largest city | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/pictures/collection/highsm/item/2017882500/

 

A rusted steel beam recovered from New York City's fallen World Trade Center that fell during infamous terrorist attacks in 2001 stands at this "9/11" memorial in Gila Bend, Arizona. | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/pictures/collection/highsm/item/2018663482/

 

Calatrava's Oculus, a 335-foot-long, spiky-skylighted transportation hub attached to the One World Trade Center memorial in downtown Manhattan (borough) in New York City. The structure, designed by Spanish architect Santiago Calatrava, opened on the 16th anniversary of the terrorist attack that brought down the World Trade Center's "Twin Towers" on what has become known simply as "9/11" - September 11, 2001| Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/pictures/collection/highsm/item/2018699939/

Interior view of the World Trade Center Memorial and Museum in downtown Manhattan (borough) in New York City, built on the site of the terrorist attack that brought down the World Trade Center's "Twin Towers" on what has become known simply as "9/11" - September 11, 2001 | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/pictures/collection/highsm/item/2018699980/

 

 

Interior view of the World Trade Center Memorial and Museum in downtown Manhattan (borough) in New York City, built on the site of the terrorist attack that brought down the World Trade Center's "Twin Towers" on what has become known simply as "9/11" - September 11, 2001 | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/pictures/collection/highsm/item/2018699981/

Memorial photograph wall of people killed at the World Trade Center Memorial and Museum in downtown Manhattan (borough) in New York City, built on the site of the terrorist attack that brought down the World Trade Center's "Twin Towers" on what has become known simply as "9/11" - September 11, 2001 | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/pictures/collection/highsm/item/2018700059/

Angel memorial near the Shanksville, Pa., crash site of United Airlines Flight 93, which was highjacked in the September 11th terrorist attacks | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/pictures/collection/highsm/item/2002717287/

Wreath memorial, Shanksville, Pa., decorated with photographs of the victims of United Airlines Flight 93, which was highjacked in the September 11th terrorist attacks | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/pictures/collection/highsm/item/2002717288/

Sculptor Sassona Norton's 9/11 Memorial outside the Montgomery County Courthouse in Norristown, Pennsylvania The memorial honors those who died in the events of September 11, 2001, when terrorists attacked New York's World Trade Center, the Pentagon in Washington, and an airliner flying over Pennsylvania The memorial is cast in bronze and features a set of hands that hold a 16-foot piece of twisted steel from the wreckage of the Trade Center| Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/pictures/collection/highsm/item/2019689991/

 

A "9/11" memorial at Indiana University of Pennsylvania in the town of the same name, to those killed in three locations in terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11, 2001 | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/pictures/collection/highsm/item/2019691118/

The 93-foot "Tower of Voices" at the Flight 93 National Memorial near Shanksville, Pennsylvania | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/pictures/collection/highsm/item/2019690759/
 

9/11 Memorial at the Pentagon, Pentagon City, Virginia | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2010630812/

Memorial at the Pentagon - Poster | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/afc911000188/

Memorial at the Pentagon-Marine Flag | Library of Congress | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/afc911000187/

 

Memorial at the Pentagon - Flag 2 | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/afc911000189/

 

Memorial to Matthew Diaz, a victim of the September 11th terrorist attack on the World Trade Center, New York, N.Y. | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2002717256/

 

Memorial for the victims of the September 11th terrorist attack on the World Trade Center, New York City; with candles, flowers, mementos, and photo of the twin towers | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2002717255/

General Tips for Teaching Controversial Subjects

• Center activities on primary sources. Primary sources are tangible evidence that allow students to engage directly with history. These primary sources in particular were preserved and digitized by the Library of Congress because they were deemed important to the history of the United States.
• Discussion and analysis of these sources can be wide ranging, but within each class those discussions can always be turned back to the source itself.
• The sources are also, by definition, only pieces of a puzzle. They bring us closer to understanding the past but there is always room for doubt and uncertainty.  
• Questions, Observations, and Reflections should come from students. These are primarily student-directed learning activities. It is the instructor's role to create a space for inquiry and empower students to drive the inquiry.
• It may help to remind students at the outset that it is normal for different individuals to come to different conclusions, even when we are looking at the same sources. Further, it would be strange if we all agreed completely on our interpretations. This can normalize the strong reactions that can come up and enables educators to discuss the goal of historical research, which is to hopefully go beyond the realm of individual  perspective to access a fuller understanding of the past that takes multiple perspectives into account.
• Teaching historical topics that involve violence and other trauma can be traumatic for some students as well. Providing students with previews of what content will be covered and space to process their emotions can be helpful. The following video series from the University of Minnesota contains further tips for teaching potentially traumatic topics: https://extension.umn.edu/trauma-and-healing/historical-trauma-and-cultural-healing.

 

What is it?

Housing disparity is still a challenge many people, including students, face today. This guide provides historical context and primary sources so that students can better understand housing issues in the present-day U.S. 

Key points:

• This activity will take one 90-minute period or two 45-minute periods. It is appropriate for a high school U.S. history classroom, but the sources can also inform a government class looking at the policy issue of housing.
• Students will analyze, interpret, and evaluate primary sources related to housing. 
• Students will gain a better understanding of the defining characteristics of housing and the historical actors and policies that determine these factors 
• Guiding Question: How has housing been provided for people in the U.S. and how has that changed over time? 

Introduction

The McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Act, initially enacted in 1987 but reauthorized in 2015, ensures that youth facing homelessness can still access quality education and provides resources and assistance for students facing homelessness to succeed in their education. While there is a consensus that education is a fundamental right, housing is still an issue under debate. The purpose of this lesson is to indicate that the concept of housing as a basic right has changed over time. Students should take away that access to housing has not been solely based on individual actions or motives. It is based on various people, laws, ideas, and institutions.

This lesson aims to provide students with an understanding of the defining characteristics of housing and the historical actors and policies that determine these factors. The students should begin formulating the lesson's introduction about the foundations of a home. Have students think about what made those individuals’ houses homes. Another critical objective that teachers should have students think about is the interrelatedness of housing and houselessness. As the lesson will illustrate, housing development is usually coupled with the displacement of groups of people. This should prompt students to think about what happens to individuals when they are removed from places. To explore this interdependency of housing and houselessness, it is best to look at housing reform, which was emphasized during the New Deal. Educators should briefly reference the Great Depression and economic crisis to provide students with a starting point on how housing reform and public housing shifted into the present. The New Deal era demonstrates that concerns surrounding housing and the response to those concerns are displayed through policy and legislation. The reaction to those policies and legislation is through activism and lobbying. By the end of the lesson, students should be able to comprehend this cycle of development and reform, along with its various actors. 

Background/Context

While housing has been an issue throughout history, the first federal action to address housing came as a response to the Great Depression in the 1930s. The Great Depression brought about a massive housing crisis and high unemployment rates across the United States. Progressive reformers, as a response, initiated housing reform. The U.S. Housing Act of 1937 provided government funding to build regulated public housing, creating affordable living arrangements for low-income citizens. These new housing structures had racial segregation embedded in their design and coupled with urban renewal initiatives, the deterioration of public housing initiatives would begin after World War II. The Great Migration brought many African Americans to urban areas in the Northeast, West, and Midwest, searching for new opportunities. Due to the increasing number of African Americans in the urban centers and changes in legislation such as Brown v. Board in 1954 and the soon-to-come Civil Rights Act of 1964, housing authorities could no longer preserve the separatist vision of their progressive architects. Policymakers and white residents began to use de facto methods to maintain segregation. Leaving public housing areas in droves as a response, creating a need for more suburban neighborhoods designed to maintain segregation. Additionally, federal subsidies could no longer support the costs of maintaining these public housing buildings. As a result of tenant rent adjustments, housing authorities could no longer sustain quality conditions for tenants, and these buildings often became neglected. 

The 1970s and 1980s ushered in significant changes to housing policy in the United States. Concerns about private versus public funding for public housing and a resurgence in attention to homelessness created new policies that shifted American perspectives across racial and class lines. In the 1970s, urban renewal initiatives and policies such as the Housing and Community Development Act of 1974 shifted funding for affordable housing from federal responsibility to corporate opportunity. This act established Section 8 housing, which provided housing vouchers that allowed low-income individuals to get government subsidies to live in privately owned properties. However, because of this new shift, many public housing buildings were neglected, and many African Americans and other minority groups, like Latino communities, were still residing in them.  In the late 1970s and 1980s, there was an effort to move these residents out of public housing and into new privately owned neighborhoods. The 1986 Low-Income Housing Tax Credit (LIHTC) incentivized private developers to build new housing developments regulated by the state but relieved the federal government from fiscal responsibility. These initiatives, while alleviating the responsibility of the state and federal governments, did not lessen the ongoing poverty issues. By the 1990s, the HOPE VI program was created by Congress to demolish abandoned and neglected public housing and create new “mixed-income” housing developments. 

Throughout these efforts, the demolishing of housing and the creation of new neighborhoods always come with the displacement of people. These efforts not only created housing opportunities but also created homelessness. During the 1960s and 1970s, there were areas of placeless people, commonly known as “skid row.” These areas were filled with liquor stores, poorly managed hotels, crime, and disorder. During the 1950s and 1960s, homelessness and these areas were mainly populated by males, but as policy changed over time, there was a rise in women and children facing homelessness in the 1970s and 1980s. In 1987, the United States Interagency Council on Homelessness was created to respond to these changes in homelessness. Continuing these efforts in the 1990s and early 2000s, advocacy increased in combatting homelessness. Many non-profit organizations were forming to relieve issues concerning homelessness and federal policy, such as the Homeless Emergency Assistance Transition to Housing Act, enacted in 2009, to provide funding for homelessness prevention and re-housing. Place and placeness are interdependent. Examining housing and homelessness in the history of the United States involves examining policies, the individuals who create them, and the individuals who are affected by them. 

Activity

Bell Ringer  

To begin the lesson, students should consider the foundational elements of what constitutes a home. Using a textbook, a selection of reference materials, or even an internet search have students find examples of different homes throughout history; think of Indigenous housing structures, homes of the settlers-colonists during the Westward expansion, or the elaborate houses built by the elite class during the Gilded Age. Students should be able to express commonalities and indicators of defining “home” by the end of the discussion. 

Educators should allow students to consider whether housing structures are defined by their permanence and sustainability. Have students name the factors that could have led to temporary housing during earlier periods in U.S. history, such as migrating due to low food sources or natural disasters like fires or floods. There could also have been a lack of safety. Educators should guide students to determine that these first livable structures were built out of a necessity to survive, sheltering individuals and providing protection from elements that would compromise safety. Their permanence was yet to be determined. 

Homes began to form when people had the proper devices to ensure their structure could shield them from primary threats and cultivate sustenance. Examples are the ability to farm and raise animals. Most importantly, there was no longer a need to uproot quickly. Have students name a few activities individuals can do when they no longer must worry about these threats. Ask students what some ways these individuals could manage these threats are. 

Another significant development in creating permanent housing was property rights and land claims. People began to obtain documentation, such as deeds and titles, contracts, and leases, to represent their residences legally. Due to this, housing is now codified, but the right to housing is still in question. Federal and state governments create policies on how these laws can be enforced. Prompt students to consider the difference between a right to housing versus a right to shelter. 

After this brief discussion, this activity will allow students to begin rationalizing their definitions of what constitutes a home.  

To clarify the exercise, offer definitions for home. Here are a few definitions:  

Example: 

A home is a permanent structure used for habitation, procured through legal processes. 

Oxford Dictionary 

House 

• (noun) A building for human habitation, typically and historically one that is the ordinary place of residence. 

Home 

• (noun/adj.) A dwelling place is a person’s house or abode, the fixed residence of a family or household, and the seat of domestic life and interests. 

There are many definitions of house and home. Michael Allen Fox’s chapter “The Many Faces of Home” in Home: A Very Short Introduction suggests that the definition of home depends on linguistics, region, and cultural norms. Fox concludes that the definition of home is flexible and dependent on circumstance. Educators that would like additional information on how to define home should reference Fox’s chapter. 

For additional resources on defining home, Habitat for Humanity’s “What Does Home Mean to You” voices the definition of home through various perspectives. This resource can be used as a preliminary source for educators to tie in themes from the discussion.  

 

Step One 

First, ask the class: What do you think defines a home? 

Step Two 

As an entire class or in small groups, use the images below in the Primary Sources section and ask students what characteristics define these types of houses. These images can be printed and put on a board or provided to students. The images can also be projected on the board, or if students have their own digital devices (i.e., laptops, tablets, desktop computers), provide them the links and have them pull the images up on their devices. Students can work individually or in groups according to the teacher's preference. 

Educators can arrange these images in any order; however, they should refrain from telling the students what category they would be placed in. 

Step Three 

Create a list on a whiteboard or have students in groups write down characteristics for each image they think creates a home. For example, in Image #1, students can identify that there are curtains and other items displaying that people reside in the residence. 

Conclusion

During the activity, students have become the decision-makers on defining what constitutes a home. This is a common theme throughout the lesson: who defines housing, and who decides who gets to have housing? Historically, actors have been policymakers, activists, and legal apparatuses. 

Housing and homelessness are determined by permanence, which is determined by legislation. Legislation establishes ownership and protects residents, enforcing codes and policies to ensure the structure is livable. The policies determine housing rights. Throughout the lesson, students should continue to inquire about how these rights change over time. 

Ask students: Who decides what constitutes a home?  

Primary Sources: Housing Examples

1. Typical Housing in Greenbelt, Maryland- https://www.loc.gov/item/2018699737/ 

Annotation: These houses should be categorized as homes. Students should be able to identify residency in both homes by examining them. A satellite dish, curtains, and other identifiers provide proof of occupancy. The individual in this home is either the owner or renter, and the structure has gone through a legal process to become a permanent structure. Housing communities in the Greenbelt District were developed during the New Deal Era in 1935 under the United States Resettlement Administration. This administration was designed to resettle farmers and migrant workers affected by the Dust Bowl.  

 

2. One of Many Small Ponds Surrounded By Housing Developments in Gilbert, Arizona, a Southern Suburb of Phoenix, Arizona- https://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2018702325/ 

Annotation: The homes in this picture are recently built. This picture was taken in 2018. Students should recognize that these are permanent structures and think about what these homes do to the environment and homes of other organisms. This picture shows a pond and clear signs of human manipulation of this environment. Teachers should guide students to conclude that homes that are this way permanently displace other living things and their habitats while creating new ones for others. 

 

3. Housing Development Around a Private Lake in the Northern Reaches of Indianapolis, Indiana-   https://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2016631680/ 

Annotation: This image is an aerial view of housing development. Have students notice the exclusiveness of this property. It is essential to identify this lake as private. Some indicators show that there are very few entry points into this neighborhood. This is designed for the safety of the community. Students should reference the previous discussion that safety and community building are critical to creating permanence. Also, the concept of privatizing property, such as the lake, relates to the debate on property rights. This lesson will discuss the conversations between policymakers and citizens on whether housing initiatives should depend on government subsidies or become a private corporate venture. Students should begin to acknowledge the differences and outcomes between the two.  

 

4. Abandoned Public-Housing Units in the Liberty City Neighborhood of Miami, Florida- https://www.loc.gov/resource/highsm.62362/ 

Annotation: The housing units in this image were a government-subsidized public housing project built in the 1930s. The housing units, while no longer in use, are the physical representation of the changes in housing reform. These units were once heavily populated during the early stages of housing reform. However, they are vacant over time due to many policy changes.

 

Primary Source Analysis Activity: Housing Policy 

To analyze these sources, divide students into groups and create a station for each primary source, a total of four stations that students will rotate. Students should spend 10 to 15 minutes at each station examining the sources, answering associated questions, and recording them on paper. Each group should have one document to share their answers at the end of this activity. The questions are designed to have students not only think about the material from a historical perspective but also prompt students to think about historical actors involved in creating housing policy changes and homeless assistance reforms. These sources are in chronological order to aid students in analyzing how housing changes over time. During this activity, ensure that students contemplate the relationship of each source and whether it adds to the continuity or change in housing policies and public sentiments. At the end of the activity, reassemble the class and discuss each group’s answers. 

A computer or tablet will be needed for this activity. 

Step One 

To begin this activity, additional information should be provided to frame the required con, specifically with Sources #3 and #4, due to the nature of the sources. As the entire class, educators should review each source, provide background information, and review the specific questions on each source.

Step Two 

Divide students into groups, set a timer for 10 minutes, and begin the timer at the start of each rotation. Each station should have instructions for the students, including how to use the source and the associated questions. Students should write a 3-5 sentence answer for each station’s question. 

Step Three

After all student groups have completed the activity, the class should reconvene, review each question, and have students share their answers. Educators should revisit the information provided at the start of the activity as needed. 

 

Station One 

Educators should print out the Library of Congress’s Public Improvement map and use a computer or tablet to display Mapping Segregation DC’s “Restricted Housing and Racial Change, 1940-1970” map for students to interact. 

Source #1 

Program objectives diagram 1: 1967-1985 public improvement program priorities (partial accounting) : [District of Columbia]. - https://www.loc.gov/resource/g3851g.ct010988/?r=-0.279,0.116,1.856,0.957,0 

This city-planning map displays urban renewal plans in Washington, D.C., created in 1967 to illustrate development plans from 1967-1985. This map shows where new schools will be built, transit systems, parks, and other infrastructure for public improvement. Have students pay attention to where these activities are located. In tandem with this source, have students examine Mapping Segregation DC’s, Restricted Housing and Racial Change, 1940-1970 map, and have students identify who lives in the neighborhoods that will be affected. Choose the layers of the map that coordinate with the time of this development plan. ‘

Questions 

1. What does “public improvement” mean according to this map? 
2. What places are being added to the neighborhood? 
3. What neighborhoods and residents are being affected based on both maps? 

 

Station Two

Educators can print out this source or display it digitally. 

Source #2

The Housing Struggle in Crisis, National Tenant Organization Poster, 1973- https://www.loc.gov/item/2016649888/ 

This source is a poster for the National Tenant Organization’s National Convention in 1973, held in Chicago, Illinois. The poster shows an apartment building being demolished. The National Tenant Organization was formed in 1969 to help with tenants' rights issues. The National Tenants Organization vs. HUD (U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development) determined that HUD’s restriction in deductions to secondary wage earners resulted in overcharging those tenants. The courts determined that this was a violation and that HUD must carry out the deductions. Students examining this source should contemplate the types and levels of advocacy during housing reform. 

Questions 

1. How does this poster depict issues surrounding housing during the 1970s? 

 

Station 3 

Educators should print or display digitally the first page of this source and highlight the excerpt or print out the excerpt of the source placed below. 

Source #3

U.S. Reports: Hills, Secretary of Housing and Urban Development v. Gautreaux et al., 425 U.S. 284 (1976). - https://www.loc.gov/item/usrep425284/ 
 

Hills vs. Gautreaux was a defining moment in housing reform. This case shows that racial discrimination remained active after the 1964 Civil Rights Act. It prompted housing authorities to create new non-discriminatory housing programs, including Section 8 and integrating Black and White residents. Students should use the excerpt below, and educators should prompt a discussion about the magnitude of why the integration of residence was essential to Americans. This case is twelve years after the Civil Rights Act and in Chicago, which is often not associated with racism as in the American South. Students should identify that racism was nationwide and that the Civil Rights Act, a federal law, did not solve the problem of segregation. While segregation was now illegal, de facto segregation was still prevalent. 

Excerpt: 

“Respondents, Negro tenants in or applicants for public housing in Chicago, brought separate class actions against the Chicago Housing Authority (CHA) and the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), alleging that CHA had deliberately selected family public housing sites in Chicago to ‘avoid the placement of Negro families in white neighborhoods’ in violation of federal statutes and the Fourteenth Amendment, and that HUD had assisted in that policy by providing financial assistance and other support for CHA's discriminatory housing projects. The District Court on the basis of the evidence entered summary judgment against CHA, which was ordered to take remedial action. The court then granted a motion to dismiss the HUD action, which meanwhile had been held in abeyance. The Court of Appeals reversed, having found that HUD had committed constitutional and statutory violations by sanctioning and assisting CHA's discriminatory program.”

Questions

1. What does this case say about race in public housing during the 1970s? 
    

Station 4 

This station should center on the preservation of communities. Educators should be permanently present at this station to guide conversations and answer questions. 

Source #4

Bulletin board at Johnson Houses, E. 115th St. at Lexington Ave., Harlem, 1989 digital file from original- https://www.loc.gov/resource/vrg.07713/ 

This is a bulletin board in a public housing project in Harlem, NY. It is filled with advertisements about drug prevention and bulletins that encourage Black success. There is also a sign in Spanish. This primary source shows what some public housing communities faced during this time in these housing projects. This source also shows the dichotomy of the needs of Black and Brown community members. It shows the upliftment and success of the Black and Brown communities while protecting their communities from crime. 

During the 1980s, many members of the public believed minority communities were responsible for crime and poor living conditions. The most crucial portion of this source is that it shows an effort of community members to preserve their communities so that they won’t be subjected to urban renewal initiatives. It is also essential for students to note that there wasn’t much improvement in housing between the 1960s and 1980s. Have students identify why that is. 

Questions 

1. How do the posters on this bulletin board speak to the preservation of public housing in the 1980s? 

 

Wrap Up 

To conclude this lesson, have students reflect on the difficulty of decision-making and consider who determines housing and houselessness. 

Revisit the question in the Bellringer exercise and discuss how answers may have changed or have stayed consistent. 

Question: What defines housing? Who decides these defining attributes? 

General Tips for Teaching Controversial Subjects

• Center activities on primary sources. Primary sources are tangible evidence that allow students to engage directly with history. These primary sources in particular were preserved and digitized by the Library of Congress because they were deemed important to the history of the United States.
• Discussion and analysis of these sources can be wide ranging, but within each class those discussions can always be turned back to the source itself.
• The sources are also, by definition, only pieces of a puzzle. They bring us closer to understanding the past but there is always room for doubt and uncertainty.  
• Questions, Observations, and Reflections should come from students. These are primarily student-directed learning activities. It is the instructor's role to create a space for inquiry and empower students to drive the inquiry.
• It may help to remind students at the outset that it is normal for different individuals to come to different conclusions, even when we are looking at the same sources. Further, it would be strange if we all agreed completely on our interpretations. This can normalize the strong reactions that can come up and enables educators to discuss the goal of historical research, which is to hopefully go beyond the realm of individual  perspective to access a fuller understanding of the past that takes multiple perspectives into account.
• Teaching historical topics that involve violence and other trauma can be traumatic for some students as well. Providing students with previews of what content will be covered and space to process their emotions can be helpful. The following video series from the University of Minnesota contains further tips for teaching potentially traumatic topics: https://extension.umn.edu/trauma-and-healing/historical-trauma-and-cultural-healing.

 

What is it?
Education and learning cannot be neutral. What we decide is important for young people to know necessarily reflects our values. This guide takes a look at two topics in history education of Indigenous people in the United States. First, the Federal Indian Boarding Schools which were a deliberate attempt to separate indigenous people from their communities and their cultures. The second topic is the emergence of the American Indian Movement and specifically that movement’s efforts to defend Indigenous culture and also establish schools, called “survival schools” to teach Indigenous young people about their history and culture.

Guiding questions

What is the purpose of education?
What history should be taught in schools?

 

Background - History of Boarding Schools 1880-1930

As the United States settlers expanded into the American West between 1865 and 1890, the federal government increasingly confined Native peoples who lived there to reservations and denied the ability to continue their livelihood through hunting and farming. In addition to this effort to separate Native Americans from their land, the government also acted to separate Native Americans from their history and culture. Indian Boarding schools were central to this effort. Beginning in the 1880s, Native children were sent to these schools typically located hundreds of miles from their parents and community with the expressed purpose of assimilating them into what the government considered to be U.S.-American culture. In order to coerce Native communities into sending their children to boarding schools, the U.S. government made basic aid such as food and supplies contingent on the reservation’s children going off to school. At these schools, the children were forced to cut their hair and take English-sounding names. Children who were caught using their given names or speaking a Native language were harshly punished. While the curriculum at each school was different, the schools tended to emphasize training in manual labor rather than academics. History, when it was taught, centered on white U.S-Americans. The fact that Native young people were separated from their elders and community meant that they did not have the same access to stories and oral traditions that they would have had they remained with their families.

Primary Source Activity:
Show students the following video (~8min) from PBS News Hour on Indian Boarding schools: https://youtu.be/gRNcCCgnauI.
When the video is over, ask the class how the boarding schools acted to separate Native children from their history and culture.

 

Examining Sources:
Direct the students to the following collection of primary sources related to Indian Boarding Schools. Have students choose a source and determine if it contains evidence of how Native children were separated from their history and culture:
 
https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/native-american-boarding-schools/

Along with these sources, have students consider the announcement by Secretary of the Interior Deb Haaland of the Federal Indian Boarding School Initiative:
https://www.doi.gov/priorities/strengthening-indian-country/federal-indian-boarding-school-initiative

Question when examining these sources:

• In what way are Native people advocating for a reconsideration of history of a different perspective of the past?

 

The American Indian Movement 1961-

From the very beginning, many Native people criticized the boarding school program and opposed the effort to assimilate Native people into U.S. culture. (See guide on Charles Eastman, Zitkála-Šá, and the Society of American Indians for more on early opposition). By the 1920s, these schools were the subject of increased scrutiny for their teaching practices, living conditions , and lack of quality medical care that led to over 500 students' deaths over the years and most were eventually closed. Beginning in the 1960s, a new movement called the American Indian Movement (AIM) began organizing for Native rights including the right for Native people to practice their culture and to emphasize history from a Native American perspective.

Timeline:

1961 - Activists Clyde Warrior (Ponca) and Mel Thom (Walker River Paiute) among others form the National Indian Youth Council. A group that would grow to 15,000 members and was one of the first Native activist groups to use direct action protest.

1968 - American Indian Movement formed in Minneapolis, Minnesota around the issue of police treatment of Native Americans.

1972 - AIM members founded two schools in Minnesota, the Little Red School House in St. Paul and Heart of the Earth Survival School in Minneapolis; Beginning in October, the Trail of Broken Treaties march ends with an occupation of Bureau of Indian Affairs headquarters in Washington, DC. AIM protestors demand that 110 million acres of land be restored to Native Americans.

1973 - At the request of Lakota elders, AIM participated in a protest against corruption within the Bureau of Indian Affairs and Tribal Council, which led to the famed 71-day occupation of Wounded Knee, South Dakota. Federal law enforcement killed two protestors and wounded 24 more.

1978 -  The Longest Walk a march on Washington that began in Alcatraz Island, California and ended on the National Mall. 30,000 individuals eventually join the march. As part of the protest, a tipi was set up and maintained on the grounds of the White House.The protest called attention to legislation that would have broken Indian treaties and threatened water rights. The legislation was defeated. Two AIM leaders, Dennis Banks and Russell Means, were indicted on charges related to the occupation, but prosecutor misconduct led to the charges being dismissed.

 

Primary Source Activity:
Show students this brief video about Clyde Bellecourt (Nee-gon-we-way-we-dun) and the American Indian Movement.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LLh3gw0kVhQ

An excellent alternative film, if your school can access it, is the 2020 documentary, Warrior Women, about Native American women activists in the American Indian Movement. https://www.warriorwomenfilm.com/synopsis

 

Examining Primary sources
Have students choose a primary source from the links below. As they examine or listen to the source, ask them to pay attention to how the American Indian Movement advocated for Native American culture and history. For more background on AIM, teachers may can consult this history of the movement: http://www.aimovement.org/ggc/history.html

Russell Means Radio Interview (1992)
https://americanarchive.org/primary_source_sets/american-indian-movement/2-224-257d81km

Interview of Vernon Bellecourt, AIM Leader (1973)
https://americanarchive.org/primary_source_sets/american-indian-movement/3-28-wh2d795w2v

“Survival Schools,” WGBH Journal, 1978
https://americanarchive.org/primary_source_sets/american-indian-movement/9-15-8279d3bf

“Wounded Knee,” Sunday Forum, 1973
(Pine Ridge Reservation Residents Discuss AIM)
https://americanarchive.org/primary_source_sets/american-indian-movement/6-15-78gf28x2

“Support the American Indian Movement” | Library of Congress
https://www.loc.gov/item/2016648080/

[Tipi with sign "American Indian Movement" on the grounds of the Washington Monument, Washington, D.C., during the "Longest walk"] | Library of Congress
https://www.loc.gov/item/2011646498/

“Prevent a 2nd massacre at Wounded Knee : show your solidarity with the Indian nations” Library of Congress
https://www.loc.gov/item/2016648079/

Protesters at Columbus landing, San Francisco, California | Library of Congress
https://www.loc.gov/item/afc1989022_kl_c104/

An American Indian Movement Wounded Knee button, 1990.
https://dp.la/primary-source-sets/the-american-indian-movement-1968-1978/sources/1338

Flag of the American Indian Movement (AIM). Image by Wikimedia Commons user Tripodero,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_American_Indian_Movement_V2.svg

“What we did in the 1960s and early 1970s was raise the consciousness of white America that this government has a responsibility to Indian people. That there are treaties; that textbooks in every school in America have a responsibility to tell the truth. An awareness reached across America that if Native American people had to resort to arms at Wounded Knee, there must really be something wrong. And Americans realized that native people are still here, that they have a moral standing, a legal standing. From that, our own people began to sense the pride."
AIM Leader Dennis Banks, from a 1996 interview

Wrap up
Pose the following question for students:

• What can be done today to ensure that Native culture is defended and history will be learned? This can be an end-of-class discussion or written on an exit ticket to be handed in when students leave.

Extension idea
Have students examine the resources below to learn about what’s being done to defend Native culture and spread the understanding of Native history both in the U.S. and around the world. Students could develop a project on how the education system in their state could be changed to incorporate the culture and history of Native people.

Additional resources

About Native Knowledge 360° | Native Knowledge 360° - Interactive Teaching Resources
https://americanindian.si.edu/nk360/about/native-knowledge-360

OPINION: We must support the teachers who will be in charge of expanding Native history lessons
https://hechingerreport.org/opinion-we-must-support-the-teachers-who-will-be-in-charge-of-expanding-native-history-lessons/

From United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples
https://www.un.org/development/desa/indigenouspeoples/wp-content/uploads/sites/19/2018/11/UNDRIP_E_web.pdf

Article 14
1. Indigenous peoples have the right to establishand control their educational systems and institutions providing education in their own languages, in a manner appropriate to their cultural methods of teaching and learning.

2. Indigenous individuals, particularly children,have the right to all levels and forms of education of the State without discrimination.

3. States shall, in conjunction with indigenous peoples, take effective measures, in order for indigenous individuals, particularly children, including those living outside their communities, to have access, when possible, to an education in their
own culture and provided in their own language.

 

General Tips for Teaching Controversial Subjects

• Center activities on primary sources. Primary sources are tangible evidence that allow students to engage directly with history. These primary sources in particular were preserved and digitized by the Library of Congress because they were deemed important to the history of the United States.
• Discussion and analysis of these sources can be wide ranging, but within each class those discussions can always be turned back to the source itself.
• The sources are also, by definition, only pieces of a puzzle. They bring us closer to understanding the past but there is always room for doubt and uncertainty.  
• Questions, Observations, and Reflections should come from students. These are primarily student-directed learning activities. It is the instructor's role to create a space for inquiry and empower students to drive the inquiry.
• It may help to remind students at the outset that it is normal for different individuals to come to different conclusions, even when we are looking at the same sources. Further, it would be strange if we all agreed completely on our interpretations. This can normalize the strong reactions that can come up and enables educators to discuss the goal of historical research, which is to hopefully go beyond the realm of individual  perspective to access a fuller understanding of the past that takes multiple perspectives into account.
• Teaching historical topics that involve violence and other trauma can be traumatic for some students as well. Providing students with previews of what content will be covered and space to process their emotions can be helpful. The following video series from the University of Minnesota contains further tips for teaching potentially traumatic topics: https://extension.umn.edu/trauma-and-healing/historical-trauma-and-cultural-healing.