George Washington Papers, 1741-1799

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Image, Genl. Lafayette's departure from..., 1840-1860, George Washington Papers
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This collection of approximately 152,000 documents written by or to George Washington is the largest set of original Washington documents in the world. It includes correspondence, letterbooks, diaries, journals, account books, military records, reports, and notes from 1741 through 1799. Although the site is searchable by keyword, many documents are available only as page images rather than as transcribed text and the handwriting can be difficult to read. Transcripts, however, do exist for all diary pages and for selected documents.

The site includes a timeline with links to relevant documents; essays on Washington's diaries, letterbooks, and career as a surveyor and mapmaker; and an essay entitled "Creating the American Nation."

Archive of Early American Images

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Buffalo, Archive of Early American Images
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The images in this collection, focusing on the Americas, come from books printed or created in Europe between about 1492 and 1825. Images include woodcuts, copper engravings, and paintings. The database, still being compiled, currently contains 6,685 images and will eventually contain some 7,500 images. Image viewing software is available from the site.

The visitor can browse the entire archive or search by time period, geographical area, keyword, or subject, including indigenous peoples, flora and fauna, artifacts, industry, human activities, geography, maps, city views and plans, and portraits. Some images, such as Ptolemy's map of the world, may be familiar. Others are reproduced for the first time. Navigation requires some practice, but is worth the effort.

Learning From History and Social Studies Textbooks

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A student completing a reading assignment from his text-book. NHEC
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Good teachers seek to build on their students’ basic notions about history, but the information must be presented clearly. In one important study, Isabel Beck, Margaret McKeown, and Erika Gromoll from the University of Pittsburgh identified ways that social studies content in textbooks could be improved, since better organization and presentation enhance students’ understanding.

The researchers examined four publishers' programs for grades 4-7. They reviewed each social studies textbook and teacher manual, including how fifth grade textbooks handled the period leading up to the American Revolution.

They found that the textbooks left out or misordered the cause and consequence of historical events and frequently failed to highlight main ideas. Three common problems were:

  • inadequate explanations
  • assumed background knowledge that was left unexplored
  • unclear goals

Inadequate Explanations
One key problem was a failure to explain the relationship between a cause and an event. For example, although two of the textbooks described colonial life, they didn't explain why or how the colonists became disgruntled with British rule.

Presumptions of Background Knowledge
All four textbooks presumed a fund of knowledge that most fifth graders lack. One chapter even presented the motto “No Taxation Without Representation” without explaining the concept of representative government. The Pittsburgh researchers recommended that the texts help students understand what it means to be represented in a government body before tackling the cause of the Revolution.

Unclear Goals
If goals aren't clearly established, readers may struggle with a text. Researchers found that section headings were vague or didn't clearly tie into subject matter. One textbook introduced the Revolutionary War period with a brief overview entitled “Quarrels With England.” But the very next heading, “War Bring Changes,” concerned the French and Indian War. Thus, students studying one war would be confused by information about a different, seemingly unconnected war. According to the researchers, the textbooks assume young readers can connect cause and event without help, when this is not necessarily the case.

In the Classroom
  • Review your textbook and analyze how particular topics are covered.
  • Give students a meaningful introduction before assigning readings from the text.
  • Use additional materials to complement, challenge or provide context for information from the textbook.
  • Read more about teaching with textbooks.
Sample Application

Unclear Content Goals
The textbooks never fully established clear goals for studying the French and Indian War. Beck and her colleagues suggested they follow the lead of a good teacher who might introduce the topic the following way:

“We’re going to spend the next couple of weeks talking about the American Revolution. But fifteen years before the Revolution, there was an earlier war on the North American continent, this one between Britain and France. I’m going to talk about that war first, because it laid the groundwork for bad feelings between Britain and the colonies that led to our Revolution."

For more information

Isabel Beck, Margaret McKeown, Gail Sinatra, and J.A. Loxterman, “Revising Social Studies Text from a Text-Processing-Perspective: Evidence of Improved Comprehensibility,” Reading Research Quarterly 26 (1991): 251-76.

Margaret McKeown, Isabel Beck, Gail Sinatra, and J.A. Loxterman, “The Contribution of Prior Knowledge and Coherent Text to Comprehension,” Reading Research Quarterly 27 (1992): 79-93.

Bibliography

Isabel Beck, Margaret McKeown, and Erika Gromoll, “Learning From Social Studies Text,” Cognition and Instruction 6 (1989): 99-158.

Colonial Rifle

Description

From the Kansas State Historical Society website:

"Gun collectors covet this rare and beautiful 18th century Pennsylvania-made rifle. How did it end up in Kansas? We'd like to know the answer to that question, too!"

African Burial Ground

Description

From the Bowery Boys website:

"During the construction of a downtown federal administration building, an extraordinary find was discovered—the remnants of a burial ground used by African slaves during the 18th Century.

In the earliest days of New Amsterdam, the first Africans were brought against their will to help build the new Dutch port, slaves for a city that would be built upon their backs. Later, forced to repress the cultural expressions of their forefathers, the early black population of British New York did preserve their heritage in the form of burial rites, in a small 'Negro Burial Ground' to the south of Collect Pond (and just a couple short blocks to today's City Hall).

How did this small plot of land—:and its astounding contents—become preserved in the middle of the most bustling area of the most bustling city in the world? And why is it considered one of the most spectacular archaelogical finds in New York City history?"

Corlear's Hook and the Pirates of the East River

Description

From the Bowery Boys website:

"Avast ye mateys, there were indeed pirates in New York! Not only did they operate throughout the New York region in the 19th century, most of their grave misdeeds were focused around the East River waterfront, and in particular, Corlear's Hook.

Once a sandy beach, Corlear's Hook, at the bend in the river in lower Manhattan, has a history that include mass slaughter, innovations of the shipping trade, the heart of New York prostitution and the birth of the tenement. And in the last half of the 19th century harbored pirate gangs with names like the Daybreak Boys, the Hook Gang and the Tub of Blood Bunch."

American Experience: Dolley Madison

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From PBS:

As the wife of the fourth president, James Madison, Dolley Madison played an important part in the political and social experiment that was the early American Republic. Long before women held any overt political power, she used her unelected position to legitimize the nation's new capital, to create a political and social style for the new country, and to give Americans a sense of their own national identity.

Founding Principles: The French Connection

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From the National Constitution Center website:

"The National Constitution Center welcomes Visiting Scholar A.E. Dick Howard, White Burkett Miller Professor of Law and Public Affairs at the University of Virginia School of Law, for a discussion about the founding periods in France and America, including how the U.S. constitutional experience influenced the debates on the first French Constitution and the divergence in French and American constitutionalism after those early years."

To listen to this lecture, scroll to the August 3rd, 2009, program.