What is it?

Higher education in the United States has been shaped by history and has played a role in shaping history. Around the time of the American Revolution, college was almost exclusively for white men and, even then, often only for wealthy white men. Over time, women, Black Americans, the middle class, working class and poor Americans gained access to higher education, but this was not a simple story of gradual and steady reform. Instead new types of schools with new missions were founded at various points in the past, some were successful and some were not. Some still exist today, and all have changed over time emphasizing different courses of study and catering to new groups of students. This guide explores different types of schools and how they’ve developed over time. 

Key points:

• This activity will take one 90-minute period or two 45-minute periods. It is appropriate for a high school U.S. history or government classroom, but can be modified for a variety of learners.
• Students will analyze, interpret, and evaluate primary sources. 
• Students will learn more about the variety of colleges and universities in the United States and how they’ve changed over time. 
• Guiding Question: What forms does higher education take in the United States?

Introduction

Charles Dorn has summarized the history of higher education in the U.S: “what we conveniently call ‘higher education’ today is in actuality a composite of institutional types that developed over the course of 200 years”. The different types of institutions include public institutions, both large and small, private colleges, some religiously affiliated, some not, Historically Black Colleges and Universities, women’s colleges, and community colleges - among others. While depictions in popular culture and even in news media outlets often focus on very elite universities, the vast majority of students do not attend these elite schools and are instead enrolled at the variety of institutions discussed above. The goal of this guide is for students to learn more about higher education today by looking at its history and specifically at the different types of institutions, why they were founded, and how that history shapes the present status of higher education.     

 

Hook/Bellringer

At the beginning of class ask students to name colleges or universities that they have heard of and to add where did they hear about them. Write answers on the board or have students write the answers on the board. You can stop adding names after you have about 10 schools. Alternatively students could answer through a web platform like Padlet which could be projected on the screen. 

 

Once there is a collection of schools on the board ask students:  What do you know about these schools (ie are they public or private, 4 year or 2 year, larger or smaller etc.)

 

Introduce the activity by noting that there are a wide variety of institutions in higher education each with a different history. They were established for different reasons to meet different needs and they have changed over time to respond to changing student populations and to the world around them. Using primary sources —  photographs of various schools — students will virtually “tour” different campuses to better understand these schools. Divide students into 6 groups based on institution type: Community Colleges and Junior Colleges, Large Public Universities, Regional Public Universities, Historically Black Colleges and Universities, Private Liberal Arts Colleges and Universities, and Women’s Colleges. When they’re in their groups provide the sources and the brief description of their type of school. Direct them to use the sources the virtually “tour” these schools. Ask them to take notes on what they notice:

 

What kind of facilities and buildings do you see? 

What can you tell about the kinds of academic programs at these schools?
What kinds of activities are offered? (IE Sports? Recreation opportunities? Socializing opportunities? Museums?) 

Do you think this is a state school or a private school? What makes you think so? 

What other questions come to mind?  

Digital Research Activity 

Students will then choose a specific school to research historical sources.  Using the historical newspaper database Chronicling America to find where the school is mentioned. They will create an informal “Then and Now” presentation based on similarities and differences they notice about the school in the past and in the present. 

 

Tips for searching Chronicling America

• Look up the school on Wikipedia to see if it had a different name in the past. Use an older name as a search term on Chronicling America. 
• Many colleges and universities advertised in newspapers so searching for the name of the school plus “courses” can be helpful for finding these. 
• Search results can be filtered by state — this can be a way to narrow down the search results when searching for a specific school.

 

Primary Sources

 

Women’s Colleges

Women’s colleges are typically private liberal arts colleges founded to provide women with a 4 year college education when opportunities for women in higher education were limited. Many women’s colleges were founded between 1870 and 1890. The number of women’s colleges in the United States grew until the mid-1960s when there were over 250 in the United States. Since that time the number of women’s colleges has decreased with the schools either closing, becoming co-ed, or merging with a men's college. As of 2024, there were 26 women’s colleges in the United States that fulfill a unique role educating and empowering women.  

 

Mount Holyoke College

Inside the Emily Williston Library on the campus of Mount Holyoke College, a private women's liberal arts college in South Hadley, Massachusetts | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2019690140/

View of the campus at Mount Holyoke College, a private women's liberal arts college in South Hadley, Massachusetts | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2019690144/

View of the campus at Mount Holyoke College, a private women's liberal arts college in South Hadley, Massachusetts  | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2019690145/

Smith College 

Scene at the boathouse on the campus of Smith College in Northampton, Massachusetts, one of the "Seven Sisters" schools, an alliance of East Coast liberal-arts colleges created to provide women with education equivalent to that provided in the men-only Ivy League  | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2019690193/

Scene at the botanic garden on the campus of Smith College in Northampton, Massachusetts, one of the "Seven Sisters" schools, an alliance of East Coast liberal-arts colleges created to provide women with education equivalent to that provided in the men-only Ivy League | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2019690192/

Pond and conservatory on the campus of Smith College in Northampton, Massachusetts, one of the "Seven Sisters" schools, an alliance of East Coast liberal-arts colleges created to provide women with education equivalent to that provided in the then men-only Ivy League   | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2019690187/

 Elmira College (founded as women’s college, now co-educational)

Gillett Memorial Hall, completed in 1891 on the campus of Elmira College in Elmira, New York  | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2018700052/

Entrance arch on the campus of Elmira College in Elmira, New York  | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2018700071/

 

HBCUs

 

Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) include both private and public schools that were established before the 1964 Civil Rights Act with the mission of providing higher education to Black Americans. There are 101 HBCUs in the United States that carry out the mission of educating Americans regardless of race and preserve Black American culture and history.  

 

Grambling State University

A massive, horizontal "G" sculpture on the campus of Grambling State University, a pre-eminent HBCU (historically black college or university) in rural Grambling, Louisiana | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020744158/

 

The McCall Dining Center on the campus of Grambling State University, a pre-eminent HBCU (historically black college or university) in rural Grambling, Louisiana | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020744159/

The Frederick C. Hobdy Assembly Center on the campus of Grambling State University, a pre-eminent HBCU (historically black college or university) in rural Grambling, Louisiana  | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020744160/

 

The home team's cheering section overlooking the 50-yard line at Eddie Robinson Stadium, the home field of the Grambling Tigers football team at Grambling State University, one of America's pre-eminent "HBCU" (historically black colleges and universities) | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020744093/

 

University of Arkansas Pine Bluff 

 

Identifying sign and sculpture at the University of Arkansas Pine Bluff in Pine Bluff, Arkansas | Library of Congress |  www.loc.gov/item/2020741546/

 

The Walker Center multipurpose research hall at the University of Arkansas Pine Bluff in Pine Bluff, Arkansas | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020741547/

The Dawson-Hicks Hall dormitory at the University of Arkansas Pine Bluff in Pine Bluff, Arkansas | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020741567/

A clock that is the centerpiece of the University of Arkansas Pine Bluff in Pine Bluff, Arkansas | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020741724/

 

Lion sculpture on the campus of the University of Arkansas Pine Bluff in Pine Bluff, Arkansas, whose athletic teams are the Golden Lions | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020741566/

 

 

Regional Public

Regional public universities educate a large number of students in higher education. Many were founded as Normal Schools or Teachers Colleges and they continue to provide education to students in all areas of the country who may not have access to larger schools or private schools. According to the American Association of State Colleges and Universities these schools enroll a disproportionately higher number of students of color, of low-income backgrounds, first generation, Pell Grant recipients, community college transfers, working adults, and veterans compared with other public and private institutions.

 

Southern Oregon University

A springtime view of an academic building at Southern Oregon University in Ashland | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2018698087/

A cyclist passes before the library building at Southern Oregon University in Ashland | Library of Congress | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2018698081/

Stone artwork array on the grounds of Southern Oregon University in Ashland  | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2018698083/

 

Metal-art sculpture on the grounds of Southern Oregon University in Ashland | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2018698082/

 

University of Texas-El Paso

Building on the campus of the University of Texas-El Paso | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2014631177/

Building on the campus of the University of Texas-El Paso  | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2014631178/

Building on the campus of the University of Texas-El Paso | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2014631182/

The Chihuahuan Desert Garden and campus buildings of the University of Texas at El Paso | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2014630702/

Glass wall and stairway at the University of Texas at El Paso | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2014632620/

Glass wall at the University of Texas at El Paso | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2014632619/

Gateway sign at the University of Texas at El Paso | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2014632616/

 

The University of Texas at El Paso | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2014632618/

 

 

West Chester University

This is a ram statue, though not a golden one, in front of the Old Library building on the campus of West Chester University in West Chester, Pennsylvania. The school's sports teams are nicknamed the Golden Rams. The Department of Anthropology and Sociology, and the Institute for International Development are housed in the 1902-vintage building | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2019689476/

This is a ram statue, though not a golden one, in front of the Old Library building on the campus of West Chester University in West Chester, Pennsylvania. The school's sports teams are nicknamed the Golden Rams. The Department of Anthropology and Sociology, and the Institute for International Development are housed in the 1902-vintage building | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2019689477/

The Old Library building on the campus of West Chester University in West Chester, Pennsylvania. The Department of Anthropology and Sociology, and the Institute for International Development are now housed in the 1902-vintage building | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2019689478/

Large Public 

Large public universities enroll tens of thousands of students. Many started as Land Grant Schools, a federal program that began in 1862 with the Morrill Act and the Second Morrill Act of 1890. Funds were raised by selling western lands, most of which had been taken from Native Americans, sometimes even without a formal treaty. (see Landgrabu.org for more). Land grant schools were established to promote applied science in agriculture and industry but now most large public universities offer a wide range of degrees in including liberal arts. Many of these institutions also have a strong research focus. 

 

University of Michigan

University of Michigan Campus, Ann Arbor, Michigan. Aerial view | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020714690/

University of Michigan Campus, Ann Arbor, Michigan. Tower | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020714700/

Power Center for the Performing Arts, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan. Exterior | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020714689/

Angell Hall, an academic building at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor. It is after James Burrill Angell, who was the university's president from 1871 to 1909. The Angell Hall Observatory is located on the fifth floor roof of the building, which opened in 1924. On March 24, 1965, Angell Hall was the site of the first "teach-in" protesting the Vietnam War. More than 3,000 people attended the all-night program of seminars, rallies and speeches | Library of Congress |  www.loc.gov/item/2020722994/

The 1936 Burton Memorial Tower on the campus of the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor. Named for former university president Marion Leroy Burton, the carillon tower, designed by Albert Kahn, now (as of 2019) houses the Baird Carillon, classrooms, and faculty offices for members of the Department of Musicology | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020722990/

The University of Michigan Art Museum, in the 1910 Alumni Memorial Hall on the campus in Ann Arbor. Its original purpose was threefold: to provide a space for the university's growing art collection, open space for the graduate school, and honor alumni who had served in the nation's wars to that date | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020722995/

Abstract impressionist artist Mark di Suero's 53-foot-high "Orian" sculpture enlivens the campus of the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor. Initially exhibited at Chicago's Millennium Park, it arrived on campus on long-term loan in 2008. Ten years later t was removed because of drainage repairs, which provided an opportunity to send the sculpture back to the artist's studio in New York for conservation work and a fresh coat of vibrant reddish-orange paint | Library of Congress | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020722993/

 

University of Wyoming

The sports arena and auditorium at the University of Wyoming in Laramie, Wyoming | Library of Congress | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015632803/

S.H. Knight's Tyrannosaurus sculpture stands near the entrance to the Geological Museum at the University of Wyoming in Laramie, Wyoming | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015632813/

 

Cooper House, home to the American Studies program at the University of Wyoming in Laramie, Wyoming | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015632809/

D. Michael Thomas's "Breakin' Through" statue at the University of Wyoming in Laramie, Wyoming. The statue evokes the university's "Cowboys" sports nickname ("Cowgirls" in the case of women's teams), and the state nickname as The Cowboy State | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015632797/

The Marian H. Rochelle Gateway Center at the University of Wyoming in Laramie, Wyoming, a convocation center that the university calls its "front door" | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015632795/

Engineering Hall, home to the engineering department at the University of Wyoming in Laramie, Wyoming | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015632814/

The Arts and Sciences building at the University of Wyoming in Laramie, Wyoming | Library of Congress | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015632812/

The College of Agriculture building at the University of Wyoming in Laramie, Wyoming | Library of Congress | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015632811/

The College of Business building at the University of Wyoming in Laramie, Wyoming | Library of Congress  | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015632810/

University of Nebraska-Lincoln

Louise Pound Hall on the University of Nebraska campus in Lincoln, the capital city of the midwest-U.S. state, houses (as of 2021) the Department office of Child, Youth and Family Studies and the office of the College of Education and Human Sciences | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2021758197/

Once the college engineering building, Richards Hall on the University of Nebraska campus in Lincoln, the capital city of the midwest-U.S. state, now (as of 2021) houses the School of Art and the Eisentrager-Howard Art Gallery | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2021758196/

Since 2003, the Van Brunt Visitors Center has served as the unofficial "front door" to the campus of the University of Nebraska in Lincoln, the capital city of the midwest-U.S. state | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2021758202/

Japanese artist Jun Kaneko's 2009 "Untitled" ceramic and galvanized-steel sculpture outside the Sheldon Museum of Art on the campus of the University of Nebraska in Lincoln, the capital city of the midwest-U.S. state | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2021758200/

Artist Ed Carpenter's "Harvest" sculpture greets those approaching the Pinnacle Bank Arena, the home of the University of Nebraska men's and women's basketball teams in Lincoln, the capital city of the midwest-U.S. state of Nebraska | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2021758193/

These four columns have become a landmark on the campus of the University of Nebraska in Lincoln, the capital city of the midwest-U.S. state | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2021758203/

The Sheldon Museum of Art, on the campus of the University of Nebraska in Lincoln, the capital city of the midwest-U.S. state | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2021758198/

 

Private, Liberal Arts

 

Liberal arts colleges offer 4 year degrees and also emphasize a broad education and general knowledge including science, history, literature, math, and languages. Private schools tend to be smaller and many, although not all, were originally founded as religious institutions.  

 

Amherst College

The campus quadrangle, colloquially called the "quad," at Amherst College, a private liberal-arts college in Amherst, Massachusetts | Library of Congress

https://www.loc.gov/item/2019690237/

The Keefe Campus Center, the student activities building at Amherst College, a private liberal-arts college in Amherst, Massachusetts | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2019690233/

The Keefe Campus Center, the student activities building at Amherst College, a private liberal-arts college in Amherst, Massachusetts | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2019690234/

Davis & Elkins College

Campus view of Davis & Elkins College in Elkins, West Virginia. The Albert Hall science building is in the foreground | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015631689/

Campus view of Davis & Elkins College in Elkins, West Virginia. The Albert Hall science building is in the foreground | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015631691/

 

Graceland mansion on the campus of Davis & Elkins College in Elkins, West Virginia | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015631695/

Halliehurst mansion on the campus of Davis & Elkins College in Elkins, West Virginia | Library of Congress | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015631694/

Booth Library on the campus of Davis & Elkins College in Elkins, West Virginia | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015631692/

 

St. Olaf College

A woodsy fall view of a portion of the campus of St. Olaf College, a private, liberal-arts college in Northfield, Minnesota | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020723532/

A woodsy fall view of a portion of the campus of St. Olaf College, a private, liberal-arts college in Northfield, Minnesota | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020723535/

A woodsy fall view of a portion of the campus of St. Olaf College, a private, liberal-arts college in Northfield, Minnesota | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020723538/

A portion of Boe Memorial Chapel on the campus of St. Olaf College, a private, liberal-arts college in Northfield, Minnesota | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020723536/

A portion of Boe Memorial Chapel on the campus of St. Olaf College, a private, liberal-arts college in Northfield, Minnesota | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020723539/

Mellby Hall, the oldest residence hall on the campus of St. Olaf College, a private, liberal-arts college in Northfield, Minnesota  | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020723530/

Mellby Hall, the oldest residence hall on the campus of St. Olaf College, a private, liberal-arts college in Northfield, Minnesota | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020723531/

Boe Memorial Chapel on the campus of St. Olaf College, a private, liberal-arts college in Northfield, Minnesota | Library of Congress

https://www.loc.gov/item/2020723537/

The Theater Building on the campus of St. Olaf College, a private, liberal-arts college in Northfield, Minnesota | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2020723533/

 

Community Colleges and Junior Colleges

According to the U.S. Department of Education, almost half of all students in higher education are enrolled in Community Colleges or Junior Colleges. Over half of adults with a 4 year degree began their education at a community college. Community colleges and junior colleges also enroll a high number of first generation students and lower income students. While the first institution of this type was established in 1901 with the founding of Joliet Junior College (JJC) in Joliet, Illinois, the largest growth of community colleges occurred after 1945 as college attendance rose overall the federal and state government encouraged the development of schools that could bridge the gap between high school and college, provide training in trades, and serve as cultural centers for communities. 

 

Western Wyoming Community College

 

Buildings at Western Wyoming Community College in Rock Springs | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2017688034/

Buildings at Western Wyoming Community College in Rock Springs | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2017688035/

Buildings at Western Wyoming Community College in Rock Springs | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2017688036/

Potomac State College of West Virginia University

Davis Hall, a dormitory and conference center at Potomac State College of West Virginia University, a two-year junior college affiliated as a division of West Virginia University located in Keyser, West Virginia | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015631540/

Science Hall at Potomac State College of West Virginia University, a two-year junior college affiliated as a division of West Virginia University located in Keyser, West Virginia | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015631537/

Catamount statue at Potomac State College of West Virginia University, a two-year junior college affiliated as a division of West Virginia University located in Keyser, West Virginia | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015631534/

Academy Hall at Potomac State College of West Virginia University, a two-year junior college affiliated as a division of West Virginia University located in Keyser, West Virginia | Library of Congress | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015631538/

Reynolds Hall, a dormitory at Potomac State College of West Virginia University, a two-year junior college affiliated as a division of West Virginia University located in Keyser, West Virginia | Library of Congress | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015631539/

The 1919-vintage Administration Building at Potomac State College of West Virginia University, a two-year junior college affiliated as a division of West Virginia University located in Keyser, West Virginia | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015631542/

Mary F. Shipper Library at Potomac State College of West Virginia University, a two-year junior college affiliated as a division of West Virginia University located in Keyser, West Virginia | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015631535/

Potomac State College of West Virginia University, a two-year junior college affiliated as a division of West Virginia University located in Keyser, West Virginia | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015631536/

Overview of Potomac State College of West Virginia University, a two-year junior college affiliated as a division of West Virginia University located in Keyser, West Virginia | Library of Congress | www.loc.gov/item/2015631541/

What is it?

The founding of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (whose followers are often referred to as Mormons) is a significant event in U.S. history. The publication of the Book of Mormon in 1830 led to the formation of what became the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and the eventual creation of a Mormon settlement in the American West. It represents both the founding of a religion that as of 2020 counted over 16 million adherents worldwide and an important episode in the westward expansion of the country. By looking closer at this history, students can better understand the religious movements that grew out of the Second Great Awakening as well. One crucial dimension of the birth of the Mormon Church is the role of place. Early Mormons moved multiple times to find a favorable location to grow the church before establishing a community far from any other white settlement. This settlement of the west would eventually lead to the creation of the state of Utah in 1896 only after the church formally abandoned the practice of polygamy. In the activity below, students will build a digital story map that incorporates primary sources from the Library of Congress related to the history of Mormonism. Note: Tutorials for teachers on how to use digital mapping platforms are linked below.

Key Points:

• This activity will take one 90-minute period or two 45-minute periods. It is appropriate for a high school U.S. history classroom, but can be modified for a variety of learners.
• Students will analyze, interpret, and evaluate primary sources. 
• Students will learn about the origins of Mormonism, an important religious movement in antebellum America. 
• Students will learn about the westward migration of Mormons to present-day Utah, a key event in the westward expansion of Americans.  

  

Approaching the Topic

In this activity, students will engage with a variety of primary sources to create an interactive digital map. Students should pay particular attention to the time and place in which each source represents in order to place it on their map. It will be useful for students to have some background information on the Second Great Awakening. Resources on this topic can be found in this exhibit from the Library of Congress.  Teachers may also decide to place this activity in the context of westward expansion. Resources here from the Library of Congress are helpful for providing this context. Also a review of these topics in a standard history textbook would also be sufficient for this activity. The guide will also contain tips for teaching about religion generally to help teachers engage students with what can be a challenging topic to teach. 

 

Description

This activity facilitates students’ engagement with primary sources as they explore the early history of the Mormon church in the United States. Students will examine sources carefully, note details, particularly the time and place associated with the source. Note that several of the sources were created several decades after the event they depict. Students should take this into account as they interpret the source. Students work together to create an interactive digital map using three or four of the sources to communicate how movement and place shaped the history of this religion.

 

Teacher Preparation

Make the primary sources below available to students either through links, if using electronic devices, or by printing them out. According to your students’ needs, for text sources you may need to guide students to the relevant excerpts or share the excerpts separately. These excerpts are included below. 

The story map students create in this activity can be done on a variety of platforms including StoryMapJS or Google My Maps. An overview of StoryMapJS can be found here. An overview of Google My Maps can be found here. A helpful tutorial for using StoryMapsJS with students created by the Gilder Lerhman Institute can be found here: https://www.gilderlehrman.org/sites/default/files/inline-pdfs/storymapjs_tutorial.pdf. A tutorial for Google My Maps can be found here: https://jessicaotis.com/tutorials/google-maps/

Teachers will want to familiarize themselves with whatever platform they choose to use. In creating a digital map, students will learn how place and location affect history and how to communicate that history succinctly but accurately in an interactive digital presentation.  

Differentiation note: Depending on students reading abilities, teachers may want to consider accommodations for engaging with the primary sources below. Excerpts from text sources have been included along with annotations to highlight the most relevant passages. Teachers may also elect to read excerpts out loud to students or to assign smaller chunks of texts for students to examine in small groups. 

 

Primary sources

The Book of Mormon 

https://www.loc.gov/item/77352721/

Annotation: The Book of Mormon was published by Joseph Smith in March of 1830 in Palmyra, New York and is a central religious text of the Latter Day Saint movement. Palmyra is in western New York, an area known in the early 1800s as the “Burned-over district” due to the intensity of religious revivals in the region which were a major part of the Second Great Awakening. In addition to the establishment of the Mormon Church by Smith, religious groups such as the Millerites and the Oneida Colony were founded in this region and other groups like the Shakers and the Ebenezer Society were active as well. 

For Latter-Day Saints, the Book of Mormon represents a new revelation something the text itself makes the case for new holy texts and new revelations:
“Thou fool, that shall say: A Bible, we have got a Bible, and we need no more Bible. Have ye obtained a Bible save it were by the Jews? Know ye not that there are more nations than one? Know ye not that I, the Lord your God, have created all men, and that I remember those who are upon the isles of the sea; and that I rule in the heavens above and in the earth beneath; and I bring forth my dword unto the children of men, yea, even upon all the nations of the earth?”

Book of Mormon 2 Nephi 29:6-7

O my father

https://www.loc.gov/item/jukebox-67865/

An important hymn for the Latter-Day Saints, “O my father” was written by Eliza Snow in 1845. The hymn introduces some innovative elements of Mormon theology, such as the notion of a "Mother in Heaven" and the belief in an individual’s spiritual pre-existence prior to being born as seen in the following lyrics:

O my Father, thou that dwellest

In the high and glorious place,

When shall I regain thy presence

And again behold thy face?

In thy holy habitation,

Did my spirit once reside?

In my first primeval childhood

Was I nurtured near thy side?

Snow was also one of Joseph Smith’s plural wives. Smith’s advocacy of men having more than one wife, a practice known as polygamy, was controversial at the time within the church. The church’s practice of polygamy also made the church more controversial to many non-Mormons.

The Mormon Temple at Kirtland, Ohio - (59 x 79 feet), cost $70,000, dedicated March 27, 1836. | Library of Congress

https://www.loc.gov/item/2018651591/

Annotation:
In 1831, Joseph Smith moved the church headquarters to Kirtland, Ohio and there decreed that a temple should be built. The structure was large for its time, one of the larger buildings in northern Ohio. Smith received a revelation to, in his words, "Establish a house, even a house of prayer, a house of fasting, a house of faith, a house of learning, a house of glory, a house of order, a house of God." The architecture of the Kirtland Temple is a mixture of Federal and Gothic style. 

Joseph Smith's original temple, Nauvoo, Ills. - digital file from original print | Library of Congress

https://www.loc.gov/resource/pga.03332/

Annotation: After the church in Ohio collapsed due to a financial crisis and dissensions, in 1838, Smith and the body of the church moved to Missouri. However, they were persecuted and the Latter Day Saints fled to Illinois. In Nauvoo, Illinois another temple was constructed this one larger than the previous temple in Kirtland. At 128 feet long by 88 feet wide and a total height of 165 feet the second temple 60 percent larger than the first reflecting both the growing membership and power of the Morman Church. Note that the Nauvoo Temple was considerably more ornate than the Kirtland Temple and the architecture is a departure as well being in the Greek Revival style. 

Martyrdom of Joseph and Hiram Smith in Carthage jail, June 27th, 1844 / G.W. Fasel pinxit ; on stone by C.G. Crehen ; print. by Nagel & Weingaertner, N.Y. | Library of Congress

https://www.loc.gov/item/96508302/

Annotation: In Nauvoo, more conflicts arose between members of the Mormon Church and non-members in the community. The one issue that caused the most controversy was the Mormon practice of polygamy — a practice where one man could have more than one wife. The practice was allowed by Smith while viewed as immoral under most other Protestant religions. Members of Smith's own church broke with him over this issue as well. In Nauvoo in 1844, a local newspaper denounced Mormons and Smith for polygamy and in response the Nauvoo City Council, controlled by Mormons loyal to Smith, ordered the newspapers printing press to be destroyed. Smith in turn was charged with inciting a riot. Smith and his brother Hyram surrendered and were taken to the jail in Carthage, Illinois, but the jail was attacked by an  anti-Mormon mob and Smith and his brother were killed. The death made Smith into a martyr as far as the Mormon Church was concerned — a person within a religious faith who was killed because of their faith. The violence also convinced many Mormons that they needed a new home far away from settlements that might object to their religious practices. 

Bird's eye view of Salt Lake City, Utah Territory 1870. | Library of Congress

https://www.loc.gov/item/75696611/

Annotation: The Mormon Church split into factions after the death of Joseph Smith, but one group under the leadership of Brigham Young left Nauvoo to journey across the continent and settle in what the Mormons called Deseret, in present day Salt Lake City, Utah. Here is a birds eye view map of Salt Lake City in 1870, 22 years after the settler arrived. The Mormon Temple built here was larger and more ornate than the one in Nauvoo and it’s very prominent on the map. Even though the Mormon Movement under Young had gone to great lengths to put distance between themselves and settlements of non-Mormons, the controversy surrounding the practice of polygamy still resulted in conflict. The state of Utah would not be granted statehood until 1896 - over 50 years after the arrival of Mormons in the territory and only after the Mormon Church officially renounced the practice of polygamy.  

 

In the Classroom

Warm up (5 minutes)

When teaching the history of religion it is important to communicate to students that they are learning about religion to better understand people who lived in the past. Thus the goal is not to judge the validity of those beliefs or to accept or reject them.

To warm up, introduce the following source for the class: Route of the Mormon pioneers from Nauvoo to Great Salt Lake, Feb'y 1846-July 1847. https://www.loc.gov/item/gm69002272. If students have their own tablets or laptops encourage them to explore the map, zoom in, and ask what details they notice. Prompt questions might include:

• What does this map depict? 
• Where does the journey begin and end? 
• What details are given about the journey?
• Why do you think these settlers moved west? For the same reasons as other settlers or does this move seem different? 
• Why might it have been important for this map maker to note where the pioneers stopped each day and how long each day’s journey was?

The purpose of this warm-up is two-fold. First to model primary source analysis for students by working through the source as a class. Students should be encouraged to slow down their thinking, notice details, and reflect on what those details might mean. Second, to get students thinking about how the migration of Mormons to Salt Lake City is central to the history of the religion as evidenced by the fact that this map documents every stop and every mile of every day of the journey.  

Step One: (30 minutes)

Introduce the sources to students. The annotations included with the links above can be used to help frame the sources for students. Each source relates to the early history of the Mormon Church beginning with the founding of the Church and publication of the Book of Mormon by Joseph Smith in upstate New York, then to the Mormon relocation to Nauvoo, Illinois, and finally to the migration to present day Salt Lake City, Utah. 

After introducing the sources, inform students that their goal will be to create a digital interactive map using these sources to explore the history of the early Mormon Church. Examples of these kinds of maps can be found here:
https://storymap.knightlab.com/#examples

Pass out the sources (or provide students with links) giving each student one of the sources to start. They can either jot these down as notes or if more scaffolding is needed, you may have them complete a primary source analysis sheet for their source. Have students read/examine 3 sources total. 

Step Two (40 minutes)

Note: If done over two periods this step can be started on day one and completed on day 2. 

To create their digital maps, students may work in small groups or individually. To create the map they should choose 3-4 sources and place them on the map using the search feature of the platform. For each slide or pin in the map, students should attach the source and write a 1-2 sentence description based on their analysis of the source. The goal of the digital interactive map is to communicate the history of the Mormon Church and how movement and place shaped that history. 

Step Three (20 minutes)

Virtual gallery walk. Create a google doc for students to post their links and share it with the class. Have students take the time to examine their classmates’ maps. Alternatively, teachers could set up technology stations in the classroom with different student maps on each and have students do a physical gallery walk. 

 

General Tips for Teaching Controversial Subjects

Teaching history inevitably means teaching about topics that generate strong reactions from a wide range of people. While not every reaction can be anticipated, the following tips can provide a strong basis for a rationale for your learning activities:
 

• Center activities on primary sources. Primary sources are tangible evidence that allow students to engage directly with history. These primary sources in particular were preserved and digitized by the Library of Congress because they were deemed important to the history of the United States. 
• Discussion and analysis of these sources can be wide ranging, but within each class those discussions can always be turned back to the source itself. 
• The sources are also, by definition, only pieces of a puzzle. They bring us closer to understanding the past but there is always room for doubt and uncertainty.  
• Questions, Observations, and Reflections should come from students. These are primarily student-directed learning activities. It is the instructor's role to create a space for inquiry and empower students to drive the inquiry. 
• Linking to state or national standards can provide support and justification for classroom activities such as these. Westward expansion is explicitly mentioned in many state standards for example. The activities in this guide also link to NCSS Themes including Theme 1: Culture ("How do various aspects of culture such as belief systems, religious faith, or political ideals, influence other parts of a culture such as its institutions or literature, music, and art?")  and Theme 3: People, Places, and Environments ("study the causes, patterns and effects of human settlement and migration") 

 

What is it?

The history of the labor movement in the United States and the history of religion in the United States are two topics that are often taught, but rarely taught together. However, there are a number of compelling reasons to consider how they connect. Religious beliefs informed how Americans viewed their work and shaped how they thought employers ought to be treating them. Religious leaders at times supported organized labor’s efforts, while at other times sided with employers. At the same time, ideas about labor shaped Americans’ views of religion as the attitude of some churches toward labor demands put workers’ deeply held beliefs into conflict.

Key Points:

• This activity will take one 90-minute period or two 45-minute periods. It is appropriate for a high school U.S. history classroom, but can be modified for a variety of learners.
• Students will analyze, interpret, and evaluate primary sources. 
• Students will learn about the American labor movement and how religion and culture affected political and social issues.

 

Approach to Topic

To facilitate students engaging in this history, a variety of Library of Congress primary sources from 1910-1920 will be used. It will be useful for students to have some background information on the labor movement at that time including the fight for the 8 hour work day, the 1886 Haymarket Affair, the 1892 Homestead Strike, the 1894 Pullman Strike. The Library of Congress has engaging resources on these topics on their website. A review in a standard history textbook would also be sufficient for this activity. The guide will also contain tips for teaching about religion generally to help teachers engage students with what can be a challenging topic to teach. 

In introducing this topic to students, review briefly the effects of the industrial revolution on workers and the efforts by labor organizers to advocate for shorter working hours and safer working conditions. At the same time, communicate to students that the United States in the early twentieth century was a very religious nation and by this time it had become much more diverse in terms of religion with millions of Catholic immigrants from Ireland, Italy, Poland, and Hungary, Orthodox Christians from Greece, and Jewish immigrants from eastern Europe arriving in what had been a predominantly Protestant nation. 
 

 

Description

This activity facilitates students’ engagement with primary sources as they explore the relationship between labor and religion in the United States in the early twentieth century. Students will examine sources carefully, note details, and then interpret what the details might mean based on what they know and their interpretations of the other sources. Students work together to create a brief multimedia presentation using two to three of the sources making the case that religion is shaping labor in this period or the opposite. 

 

Teacher Preparation

Make the primary sources below available to students either through links, if using electronic devices, or by printing them out. According to your students’ needs, you may need to guide students to the relevant excerpts or share the excerpts separately. These excerpts are included below. 

For presentations, a variety of formats might be used including PowerPoint, Google Slides, or Canva, are free to use or have free versions for teachers and students to use. Alternatively, teachers may have students create brief video presentations using iMovie or another video editing app or platform. 

Differentiation note: Depending on students reading abilities, teachers may want to consider accommodations for engaging with the primary sources below. Excerpts from text sources have been included along with annotations to highlight the most relevant passages. Teachers may also elect to read excerpts out loud to students or to assign smaller chunks of texts for students to examine in small groups. 

 

Primary sources

N.D. Cochran, “Is the Church the Best and Truest Friend Labor Ever Had?” The day book. September 05, 1913.

Note: Have students examine the front page of the source first. Then, depending on their reading level they can read through the article or read the excerpts below

Page 1: https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045487/1913-09-05/ed-1/seq-1/

Page 2: https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045487/1913-09-05/ed-1/seq-2/

Page 3: https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045487/1913-09-05/ed-1/seq-3/

Page 4: https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045487/1913-09-05/ed-1/seq-4/

Excerpt(s):

[From pages 2-3]

Yes, the head and founder of the church was a laboring man and He

chose laborers to help Him carry on his work. But He went forth to the

laborers and ministered to their physical wants as well as to their spiritual

needs. And the people loved and followed Him. He loved them and suffered for them.

The case of Cardinal Manning and the London dockworkers was an

isolated case, but it shows what the attitude of the church would be toward

labor if all-ministers practiced their Christianity as Cardinal Manning did.

And if that were the general attitude of the church toward labor the church

would be packed with laborers every Sunday. They would get acquainted

with the preacher during the week, when they were solving their daily

bread-and-butter problem.

But how many times has Rev. Mr. Lloyd gone to the workingmen in

their troubles and tendered his aid toward getting them justice?

How many ministers of the church took up the fight for justice and a

living wage for the clerks in Chicago department stores when the O'Hara

committee exposed the starvation wage policy of those stores?

How many ministers of the gospel even lifted up their voices in the

pulpit to help arouse a public sentiment that would insist on a decent living

wage for the department store clerks?

What ministers of the gospel went down into the loop last year to help

the striking newsboys and save them from the assaults of newspaper sluggers and policemen?

How many labor strikes have ministers investigated? How many have

they taken enough interest in to find whether the demands of the men were

just or unjust?

How will you make workingmen and women believe the church is the

ally of labor unless the church is with them in their most serious trouble

when they are striving for a living wage and a fair chance to feed, clothe,

house and educate their children?

I am asking these questions to be helpful, for I know something of what

is running through the minds of men who are struggling with all their

might to keep their heads above water in the fight for an existence.

I have talked with preachers about the “falling off” of church attendance.

I have talked with men and with women. I find no falling off of reverence

for religion or of love for the Christianity of Christ. So there is nothing the

matter with Christianity. It must be there is something the matter with

the church.

N.D. Cochran, “Why Rich and Poor Can’t Always Worship the Same God in the Same Church,” The day book. May 26, 1914. 

Page 1: https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045487/1914-05-26/ed-1/seq-1/

Page 2: https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045487/1914-05-26/ed-1/seq-2/

Page 3: https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045487/1914-05-26/ed-1/seq-3/

Page 4: https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045487/1914-05-26/ed-1/seq-4/

Excerpt(s): 

[From pages 2-3]

My own notion is that the main trouble with our churches is much the same as the main trouble with many of our newspapers; and that is, too much editing from the business office. 

I mean by that, too much commercialization the wealthy pew renter being too influential in the church, just as the big advertiser is too influential with the newspaper; and the common people, and their everyday life problems, receiving too little sympathetic attention. 

The attitude of "the burning bush" toward labor unions cannot be said fairly to be the attitude of the churches, for the general church attitude is not openly hostile, and varies with the convictions and courage of the individual ministers. Some are openly friendly. Others are more neglectful than openly hostile. They don't understand their Christianity, and while they preach beautiful sermons on Sunday, they have, to hump themselves the other six days of the week as ministerial business men, raising money to build a new church or pay off the debt on the old one; and in the meantime trying to keep alive on a beggarly wage, which is oozed out to them by a stingy congregation that pretends to love its religion but hates like the dickens to pay for it. 

I don't know much about country churches, but have seen many country parsons wearing shiny clothes; and I imagine their congregations got all the ministering they paid for. 

In the cities, however, the job of preaching beautiful sermons to rich congregations is a soft snap, for the rich congregation pays well and wants very little religion. The well kept preacher can't get away with much real christianity, for his bread-and-butter comes from exploiters of labor. And he would get in bad if he asked his patrons how they got it. 

They will give up the money necessary to build a beautiful church, and furnish the preacher with' a fine parsonage and an automobile so long as their christianity doesn't interfere with business. And labor unions interfere with "business, " because they insist on a greater share of the product of their labor than the employer would otherwise have to let them have. 

There are many such churches, and I don't object to them if rich "Christians" want them. But I can't see any reason for poor people attending them. They are not wanted there in the first place, and won't feel comfortable or very religious if they go there. And such a church, can't be friendly to labor unions on Sunday because it can't be friendly to them on week days, when it might hurt business.

Annotation: From the 1880s to the 1930s the labor movement in the United States made multiple attempts to organize the mass of industrial workers into unions to advocate for better wages, safer working conditions, and a shorter work day and work week. Employers resisted these efforts, sometimes violently, either by employing private security forces or by calling on the police or even the national guard to end labor strikes. As conflicts grew in number and intensity, it is not surprising that churches and religious leaders would be drawn into the conflict to endorse the goals of one side or the other. These articles from a Chicago pro-labor newspaper gives one perspective on how some labor organizers perceived church leaders as being too friendly to employers. In the first from 1913, the author responds to a church leader declaring that the church is “best and truest friend labor ever had” by pointing out that the same reverend voted against laws that labor unions supported. For a positive example of a religious leader helping labor the author points to Cardinal Manning in England who worked with striking dock workers in the 1898 London Dock Strike to help them achieve their demands. Some religious leaders in the United States supported the labor movement too arguing that a shorter work week would make workers more likely to attend church. Also note that the author does not criticize religion for being anti-labor but instead criticizes the church saying that working people are still religious even if they are moving away from the church. 

The second article by the same author in 1914 argues that churches too often take the side of employers because the wealthy employers have more influence on churches. The author argues that churches are afraid to offend the “wealthy pew renter” (a person who pays for the exclusive use of a particular pew in a church) because “They will give up the money necessary to build a beautiful church, and furnish the preacher with' a fine parsonage and an automobile so long as their Christianity doesn't interfere with business.” Again the author notes the difference between the church and religion saying “There are many such churches, and I don't object to them if rich "christians" want them. But I can't see any reason for poor people attending them.”

Alice Henry, The trade union woman, 1915. 

https://www.loc.gov/item/15024465/

Excerpt(s):

[From page vii-viii]

Many of the difficulties and dangers surrounding the working-woman affect the workingman also, but on the other hand, there are special reasons, springing out of the ancestral claims which life makes upon woman, arising also out of her domestic and social environment, and again out of her special function as mother, why the condition of the wage-earning woman should be the subject of separate consideration. It is impossible to discuss intelligently wages, hours and sanitation in reference to women workers unless these facts are borne in mind.

What makes the whole matter of overwhelming importance is the wasteful way in which the health, the lives, and the capacity for future motherhood of our young girls are squandered during the few brief years they spend as human machines in our factories and stores. Youth, joy and the possibility of future happiness lost forever, in order that we may have cheap (or dear), waists or shoes or watches.

Further, since the young girl is the future mother of the race, it is she who chooses the father of her children. Every condition, either economic or social, whether of training or of environment, which in any degree tends to limit her power of choice, or to narrow its range, or to lower her standards of selection, works out in a national and racial deprivation. And surely no one will deny that the degrading industrial conditions under which such a large number of our young girls live and work do all of these, do limit and narrow the range of selection and do lower the standards of the working-girl in making her marriage choice.

Give her fairer wages, shorten her hours of toil, let her have the chance of a good time, of a happy girlhood, and an independent, normal woman will be free to make a real choice of the best man. She will not be tempted to passively accept any man who offers himself, just in order to escape from a life of unbearable toil, monotony and deprivation.

Annotation: This excerpt is from a book, The Trade Union Women, written by Australian-American journalist Alice Henry. Henry wrote for several labor-oriented publications and was interested in making her (largely middle class) readers understand the lives of working class women. Henry was also a member of the Women’s Trade Union League, an organization that included both working women and middle class women and advocated for women’s suffrage. The source is both an example of how middle class progressives tried to advocate for working women and how those efforts could be hampered by a patronizing attitude toward culture and morality. In addition to class differences between these women, there were religious differences too as most of the middle class activists were protestant and most of the poorer working women were Catholic or Jewish. In this excerpt, Henry laments that young women who work in factories are less likely to choose a suitable husband simply to “escape from a life of unbearable toil, monotony and deprivation.” The implication is that women who choose lower quality husbands will have lower quality children, a notion that reflects ideas about eugenics which were common among middle class progressives at the time. 

 

In the Classroom

Warm up (5 minutes)

To warm up, ask the class to list what they remember about the goals of the labor movement in the late 1800s and early 1900s (8 hour working day, safer working conditions, higher pay etc). You may have them write the answers on the board. Then ask them how they think these ideas might connect to religion. What religious beliefs might be related to worker goals? What might religious leaders have said about these labor goals? Why might religious leaders support a shorter work week? Why might they support the interests of employers? Inform students that the goal of the activity will be to examine primary sources to better understand religion and the labor movement in the early 1900s. The purpose of this warm up is to communicate to students that they are learning about religion to better understand people who lived in the past - judging the validity of those beliefs or to accept or reject them is not our goal.

Step One: (30 minutes)

Introduce the sources to students. Two are articles from the newspaper The day book, a pro-labor paper for workers in Chicago. More on the background of The day book can be found here at the Library of Congress. The third is a book, The Trade Union Women, written by Australian-American journalist Alice Henry. Henry wrote for several labor-oriented publications and was interested in making her (largely middle class) readers understand the lives of working class women. Henry was also a member of the Women’s Trade Union League, an organization that included both working women and middle class women and advocated for women’s suffrage. 

Pass out the sources (or provide students with links) giving each student one of the sources to start. They can either jot these down as notes or if more scaffolding is needed, you may have them complete a primary source analysis sheet for their source. Have students read/examine 3 sources total. 

Step Two (40 minutes)

Note: If done over two periods this step can be started on day one and completed on day 2. 

To create their presentations, students may work in small groups or individually. The presentation should be on religion and labor in the early twentieth century. 

Each presentation will feature 

• A main argument that religion shaped ideas about labor OR that labor shaped ideas about religion. 
• Evidence from primary sources the students analyzed supporting their position.
• A title for the presentation

Again this presentation could be designed as a slides presentation or a video using the tools mentioned above. 

Step Three (20 minutes)

Share presentations with the class. If students worked in groups, there should be enough time for all students to share. 

 

General Tips for Teaching Controversial Subjects

Teaching history inevitably means teaching about topics that generate strong reactions from a wide range of people. While not every reaction can be anticipated, the following tips can provide a strong basis for a rationale for your learning activities:

• Center activities on primary sources. Primary sources are tangible evidence that allow students to engage directly with history. These primary sources in particular were preserved and digitized by the Library of Congress because they were deemed important to the history of the United States. 
• Discussion and analysis of these sources can be wide ranging, but within each class those discussions can always be turned back to the source itself. 
• The sources are also, by definition, only pieces of a puzzle. They bring us closer to understanding the past but there is always room for doubt and uncertainty.  
• Questions, Observations, and Reflections should come from students. These are primarily student-directed learning activities. It is the instructor's role to create a space for inquiry and empower students to drive the inquiry. 
• Linking to state or national standards can provide support and justification for classroom activities such as these. The labor movement, unionization, and reforms like the 8-hour workday are explicitly mentioned in many state standards for example. The activities in this guide also link to NCSS Themes including Theme 1: Culture ("How do various aspects of culture such as belief systems, religious faith, or political ideals, influence other parts of a culture such as its institutions or literature, music, and art?")  and Theme 7: Production, Distribution, and Consumption ("What is the most effective allocation of the factors of production (land, labor, capital, and entrepreneurship)?") 
   

What is it?

As historian James McPherson has written “Religion was central to the meaning of the Civil War, as the generation that experienced the war tried to understand it.” However, many of the resources available for students learning about the war do not deal with the religious themes of the war and therefore miss important context to one of the most consequential topics in U.S. history.

Key points:

• This activity will take one 90-minute period or two 45-minute periods. It is appropriate for a high school U.S. history classroom, but can be modified for a variety of learners.
• Students will analyze, interpret, and evaluate primary sources. 
• Students will learn more about the causes of the Civil War as well as the course and character of the war and its effects on the American people. 

 

Approach the Topic

This guide will use a variety of Library of Congress sources including sheet music from marching songs that soldiers sang as they marched to battle. These songs often contained religious themes that connect to what soldiers viewed as the meaning of the war. Students will also read excerpts from sermons by various religious leaders in the North and the South as they looked to religious texts in an effort to explain the war. The guide will also contain tips for teaching about religion generally to help teachers engage students with what can be a challenging topic to teach. 

In introducing this topic to students, emphasize that the United States at the time of the Civil War was a very religious nation. Church attendance was frequent in all regions of the U.S. and significantly Americans on both sides of the war often invoked God and the Bible when justifying the war. According to historian Mark Noll, this took a variety of forms. For example, the Bible was frequently used to both condemn slavery and justify it. Similarly, American Protestants in both the North and South identified strongly with the notion of divine providence, that is, the idea that God was actively working to shape events and this work could be perceived by people as the events happened. However, which events to cite and how to interpret them differed greatly depending on which side of the conflict a person supported. In this activity students will examine primary sources to note how Americans invoked religion during the Civil War and how understanding the role of religion changes our understanding of the war. 

 

Description

This activity facilitates students as they engage with primary sources and understand better how religion shaped the beliefs of Americans during the Civil War. Students will examine sources carefully, note details, and then interpret what the details might mean based on what they know and their interpretations of the other sources. Working in groups, students will use these interpretations to create a museum exhibit (either physical or digital) to communicate the role of religion in the Civil War.  

 

Teacher Preparation

Make the primary sources below available to students either through links, if using electronic devices, or by printing them out. According to your students’ needs, you may need to guide students to the relevant excerpts or share the excerpts separately. These excerpts are included below. 

Prepare the necessary materials for students to create their exhibit. If it’s a physical exhibit this could be as simple as scissors to cut out excerpts from primary sources and materials to create captions or annotations for those sources. Poster board can also be used if the exhibits are to be more permanent or for display in another part of the school. 

For digital exhibits, a variety of formats might be used including PowerPoint, Google Slides, Google Sites, Canva, or Omeka There are all free to use or have free versions for teachers and students.  

Differentiation note: Depending on students reading abilities, teachers may want to consider accommodations for engaging with the primary sources below. Excerpts from text sources have been included along with annotations to highlight the most relevant passages. Teachers may also elect to read excerpts out loud to students or to assign smaller chunks of texts for students to examine in small groups. 

 

Primary sources

J.H. “A prophecy of the Southern Confederacy” Jefferson County, Virginia [1862?].

Excerpt(s):

That God should love thee, has been demonstrated in favour of the South, with the abundant crop, supplies and comforts to support the Armies with the material of war, is strongly shewing I have loved thee, and the men for thee. Isaiah 43d chapter 14th verse is England, with Europe, now acting in behalf of the South, by the receiving of our Commissioners or Ministers. The result of that act alone will stay the Northern power from continued aggression—thereby “giving a people for thy life.” After this promise, hear the 5th verse: “Fear not: for I am with thee: I will bring thy seed from the east, and gather thee from the west.”

Annotation: White American Protestants, both in the North and South, strongly believed in divine providence — that God was actively working to shape events and that God’s efforts could be perceived as these events were happening. This source from Jefferson County (part of West Virginia today) in 1862 is an example of this thinking. Presenting itself as a “prophecy,” it predicts that the Confederacy will achieve victory over the Union because God’s love “has been demonstrated in favour of the South.” Further signs that the Confederacy will win, according to this author, are seen in the “abundant crop, supplies and comforts to support the Armies with the material of war”. The “prophecy” goes on to predict that England will side with the Confederacy against the Union and bring about an end to the war. Given the estimated year, 1862, which was early in the war, the source is likely a reaction to the success Confederate armies were having against Union forces at that point in the war. 

A sermon on the war, by the Rev. Elias Nason, preached to the soldiers at Exeter. N. H. May 19, 1861. 

https://www.loc.gov/item/rbpe.09400400/

Excerpt(s):

My hope of ultimate success does not so much repose in our superiority to our enemies in point of military skill, or power, as in our going forth to the field of contest in confederation with Almighty God. . . 

Why then am I hopeful in this dreadful conflict? I answer fairly: not so much because of our numbers, gold, or fleets, or generalship at the north; not so much because of our union at the north; not so much because of our “materiel;” our “sinews of war” at the North—No, no, no! not these alone.—but I am confident of final victory because of the plans and the action of that wise Spirit whom we come into this temple to worship today; because we have set up our banners, not in our own, but in his Almighty name; and because I believe we go forth under his benediction to the battlefield—and one with God upon his side is an invincible legion. The South has set up its banner in the name of secession, in the name of rebellion; in the name of oppression! The poisonous rattlesnake is its fitting emblem. Such a banner ought to fall; it is opposed to human progress; learning, liberty; it is opposed to the great leading ideas of the nineteenth century; such a banner ought to fall; and I feel assured that God through your right arm intends to make it fall; and the illustrious “Star spangled banner” rise, heaven-lighted with the swelling songs of Freedom, over it.

Annotation: The notion of divine providence, that God would actively shape events in favor of the American people, was just as strongly held in the North as in the South. Here a sermon by Reverend Elias Nason, delivered to Union troops in New Hampshire, expresses faith that the Union will defeat the Confederacy because God will be on their side. “I am confident of final victory because of the plans and the action of that wise Spirit whom we come into this temple to worship today.” Nason also declares the Union on the side of “freedom” as well as “human progress; learning, liberty” likely references to fighting against slavery. To Eason this was further evidence that God was on the Union side. Note too the month and date of the sermon, May of 1861, was a month after the Confederate attack on Fort Sumter and still a few months before the first major battle of the war. At this point many on both sides would have predicted a short victorious war. 

“The Nutshell: the system of American slavery "tested by Scripture," being "a short method" with pro-slavery D.D.'s, whether doctors of divinity, or of democracy, embracing axioms of social, civil, and political economy, as divinely impressed upon the human conscience and set forth in divine revelation; in two lectures,” 1862

https://www.loc.gov/item/12005595/

Excerpt(s):

[From page 22-23]

And yet will ye plead the Scriptures in justification of American Slavery? We can imagine but one mode of evading the common sense application of the “Golden Rule.” It is substantially this: “With my present experience and knowledge,” says the apologist, “of the conditions of mankind, were I a black man,I would prefer for myself and posterity forever the condition of Slavery to that of Freedom. So do I unto others as I would they should do unto me.” Dare ye answer thus at the bar of God in the day of final account! at His bar who commands: “Break every yoke and let the oppressed go free”!

Annotation: Slavery was the central issue dividing the Union and Confederacy and on this issue too both sides believed that the Bible supported their position. While pro-slavery Christians pointed to the existence of slavery in the Old Testament of the Bible, anti-slavery Christians tended to argue that the teaching of the New Testament were opposed slavery as it was practiced in the United States. In this 1862 pamphlet, the author identified only as “Layman of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the Diocese of Connecticut” argues that the Golden Rule, found in the book of Matthew and Luke as part of the Sermon on the Mount, necessarily means that slavery is not justified. The author then quotes from the book of Isaiah, ““Break every yoke and let the oppressed go free” a passage often invoked by abolitionists. 

Battle hymn of the Republic / by Mrs. Julia Ward Howe. [Philadelphia] : Published by the Supervisory Committee for Recruiting Colored Regiments, [1863?]

https://www.loc.gov/item/98101743/

Battle hymn of the republic - background information 

https://www.loc.gov/item/ihas.200000003/

Battle hymn of the republic audio

https://www.loc.gov/item/ihas.100010455/

Song of the first of Arkansas ... written by Captain Lindley Miller, of the First Arkansas Colored Regiment
https://www.loc.gov/item/amss.cw105500/

Excerpt(s):

Oh, we're the bully soldiers of the “First of Arkansas,”

We are fighting for the Union, we are fighting for the law,

We can hit a Rebel further than a white man ever saw,

As we go marching on.

Chorus: Glory, glory hallelujah.

Glory, glory hallelujah.

Glory, glory hallelujah.

As we go marching on.

2. See, there above the center, where the flag is waving bright,

We are going out of slavery; we're bound for freedom's light;

We mean to show Jeff Davis how the Africans can fight,

As we go marching on!

(Chorus)

3. We have done with hoeing cotton, we have done with hoeing corn,

We are colored Yankee soldiers, now, as sure as you are born;

When the masters hear us yelling,

they'll think it's Gabriel's horn,

As we go marching on.

(Chorus)

4. They will have to pay us wages, the wages of their sin,

They will have to bow their foreheads to their colored kith and kin,

They will have to give us house-room, or the roof shall tumble in!

As we go marching on.

(Chorus)

5. We heard the Proclamation, master hush it as he will,

The bird he sing it to us, hoppin' on the cotton hill,

And the possum up the gum tree, he couldn't keep it still,

As he went climbing on.

(Chorus)

6. They said, “Now colored brethren, you shall be forever free,

From the first of January, Eighteen hundred sixty-three.”

We heard it in the river going rushing to the sea,

As it went sounding on.

(Chorus)

7. Father Abraham has spoken and the message has been sent,

The prison doors he opened, and out the pris'ners went,

To join the sable army of “African descent,”

As we go marching on.

(Chorus)

8. Then fall in, colored brethren, you'd better do it soon,

Don't you hear the drum a-beating the Yankee Doodle tune?

We are with you now this morning, we'll be far away at noon,

As we go marching on. (Chorus)

Annotation: The United States at the time of the Civil War was a very religious nation and soldiers in the Civil War often expressed their understanding of the war in religious terms. This can be seen in the marching songs that were used to recruit soldiers to the war and that were later sung by the soldiers themselves to keep time during marches and engage soldiers’ interest. A famous example of a marching song, “The Battle Hymn of the Republic”, incorporates religious themes implying that God is on the side of the Union in their effort to defeat the Confederacy and end slavery. Many versions of this song with different lyrics were sung by Union troops including “Song of the first of Arkansas”, the first of Arkansas being a regiment of Black soldiers. In addition to the “Glory, glory hallelujah” chorus, the song references Gabriel’s Horn which in many Christian traditions signals that Judgment Day has arrived. In the song, when the “masters” hear the first Arkansas coming they will think it’s Gabriel’s Horn. 

In the Classroom

Warm up (5 minutes)

When teaching the history of religion it is important to communicate to students that they are learning about religion to better understand people who lived in the past. Thus the goal is not to judge the validity of those beliefs or to accept or reject them. To set the stage, begin by posting the quote above by historian James McPherson and then asking students how historians might come to this conclusion that religion was important to Americans during the Civil War. “What kinds of evidence do you think historians might use to come to this conclusion?” Answers can be written on the board. The purpose of the warm up is to remind students that their goal is to try to understand these beliefs, not assess the accuracy or legitimacy of these beliefs. Inform students that the goal of the activity is to better understand what role religion played in the Civil War. 

Step One: (20 minutes)

Place students in groups. Each group member receives the same primary source and each group receives a different primary source. This is a jig-saw group activity so students will join new groups to create their exhibits. In their primary source groups, direct students to examine the source carefully noting all the words that might relate to religion. Students should also note the date of the source, who created the source, and who they think the audience might be. They can either jot these down as notes or if more scaffolding is needed, students may complete a primary source analysis sheet for their source. 

Step Two (40 minutes)

Place students in new groups such that each group has a member with a different primary source. Instruct students that each group will be responsible for creating a museum exhibit on the topic of religion and the Civil War. Each exhibit will feature 

• The primary sources the students analyzed 
• Captions for each source of about 50 words explaining what the source is and what it tells us about religion in the Civil War. 
• A paragraph introducing the exhibit.
   
• A title for the exhibit (Note: Exhibit titles are often phrases from one of the sources used in the exhibit).

Again this exhibit could be designed as a physical exhibit or a digital exhibit using the tools mentioned above.

Step 3 (25 minutes)

Students group share exhibits with class. This can either be done with each group presenting to the class or using a “gallery walk” where half the students’ exhibits are on display with their creators there to explain and answer questions while the other half of the class walk around to view the exhibits. Halfway through this period the groups switch places. 

 

General Tips for Teaching Controversial Subjects

Teaching history inevitably means teaching about topics that generate strong reactions from a wide range of people. While not every reaction can be anticipated, the following tips can provide a strong basis for a rationale for your learning activities:

• Center activities on primary sources. Primary sources are tangible evidence that allow students to engage directly with history. These primary sources in particular were preserved and digitized by the Library of Congress because they were deemed important to the history of the United States. 
• Discussion and analysis of these sources can be wide ranging, but within each class those discussions can always be turned back to the source itself. 
• The sources are also, by definition, only pieces of a puzzle. They bring us closer to understanding the past but there is always room for doubt and uncertainty.  
• Questions, Observations, and Reflections should come from students. These are primarily student-directed learning activities. It is the instructor's role to create a space for inquiry and empower students to drive the inquiry.
• Linking to state or national standards can provide support and justification for classroom activities such as these. The Civil War is explicitly mentioned in many state standards for example. The activities in this guide also link to NCSS Themes including Theme 1: Culture ("How do various aspects of culture such as belief systems, religious faith, or political ideals, influence other parts of a culture such as its institutions or literature, music, and art?")  and Theme 2: Time, Continuity, and Change ("How do we learn about the past? How can we evaluate the usefulness and degree of reliability of different historical sources?")