California Labor History

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Image, Introductory graphic, California Labor History
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This interactive essay covers 300 years of labor history in California. Powered by Shockwave, the site features a map of California that depicts the locations of labor disputes from 1776 to 1992. Using the scrollbar at the top of the site, users can change the year displayed on the map. On the map itself, small dots indicate the location of a particular event important to California's labor history. Clicking on the dot reveals a chronological list of related "Labor Events." The bottom-left panel, titled "Bigger Picture," provides links to sections of a larger secondary source entitled "Contextual Information" on California labor history relevant to the year and location the user is viewing. 64 700-word essays are mainly excerpts from published books and articles.

Teaching Work: Resources for Labor Day

Date Published
Article Body

Declared an official national holiday in 1894, the roots of Labor Day stretch back much further. Long before the Industrial Revolution and the rise of organized labor, colonists and Native peoples labored to provide for themselves and their families and to support their societies. U.S. citizens continue to work in many ways and at many jobs.

How has work changed over time? Take a look at our Labor Day spotlight page. We've gathered lesson plans, website reviews, teaching strategies, and more on American labor history. Using these resources, you and your students can ask questions about the nature of work and search for answers.

Need some questions to get started? For each particular time and place, ask:

  • Was work divided by gender? What tasks were associated with each gender? How strictly were these divisions followed? How have they changed over time?
    • Similarly, was work divided by age? What tasks were associated with different ages? How strictly were these divisions followed? How have they changed over time?
    • What did people consider "work"? What did the word mean? Were work and play distinct?
    • How were differing ideas of work addressed or resolved? Think about contact between Native peoples and colonists, or between groups of immigrants from different countries.
    • Why do people work? How were they compensated (if at all)?
    • How was work regulated? Did the people doing the work make the rules?
    • What skills, education, or background knowledge were required for various jobs?
    • Did people choose to do work? What might the consequences be if they did not work?

    There are many more questions to ask! Brainstorm with your students. Ask them what they think of as work. Do they like it? Why do they do it? What kinds of work do the adults in their lives do? They may be surprised at how much the idea of work has changed over time—and even how much it varies from person to person today.

Labor and Trade in Colonial America

Question

Who really did the work in colonial America?

Textbook Excerpt

When textbooks discuss colonial labor, they most often refer to male labor outside the physical structure of the home. This work occurred on the farm, in warehouses, and on ships and docks, creating goods to be sold either locally or as part of the "triangle trade," a network of trade routes across the Atlantic Ocean. Women, if mentioned at all, are only given a supporting role, and the labor divisions in Native communities are almost never discussed.

Source Excerpt

By framing labor as a predominantly white male occupation, textbooks are missing the complex history of labor in colonial America. Women were an integral part of the survival of most families, and also contributed to the economy as well. Native communities had divisions of labor, but their labor patterns differed from those of the colonists, and were discounted, affecting how colonists treated Native Americans.

Historian Excerpt

An analysis of the sources highlights the variety of work that made the colonial economy successful, as well as the rigid rules that specified the rights of women, slaves, and indentured servants. The sources also highlight the role of colonial labor as it pertained to international trade, and the importance of even the smallest farm on the trade routes that were so vital to the economic health and viability of the colonies.

Abstract

When textbooks discuss colonial labor practices, they most often talk about male work done outside the home. Labor is associated with creating goods for market, allowing men to participate in the "triangle trade"—a network of trade relationships in which raw materials flowed from the Americas to Europe, manufactured goods moved from Europe to Africa, and enslaved Africans were shipped back to the Americas.

This framing, however, misses key topics by:

  • overlooking female labor as central, not peripheral, to the survival of familial and colonial economies;
  • ignoring the different patterns of labor that existed in Native communities; and
  • oversimplifying the complex web of international trade relationships that wove together the Atlantic world.

Coal and the Industrial Revolution

Question

How can the story of coal help students understand the nature of today's fossil-fueled world?

Textbook Excerpt

Most textbooks explain the phenomenal growth of the American economy during the industrial revolution by some combination of immigration, urbanization, the rise of mass production, the inventiveness of great scientists, the development of extensive infrastructure, the rise of corporations, government subsidies, the "laissez-faire" legal environment, and the bounty of America's natural resources.

Source Excerpt

Sources reveal a society suffering from growing pains, with environmental and human rights concerns not yet keeping pace with the huge demand for raw coal and power to support rapidly expanding systems of infrastructure and industry. A nationwide dependency on mining sprang up unplanned, at the root of many of the changes in the U.S.'s culture and economy.

Historian Excerpt

Historians also treat economic growth during the industrial revolution as the product of many factors, but some seek out explanations and track changes beyond the few tidy categories laid out in textbooks. How, for instance, did the U.S. transition to coal power, and how was that transition both driving and driven by urbanization, mechanization, and a growing infrastructure? What effect did it have on the environment and living conditions?

Abstract

Why did the American economy take off in the late 19th century? What were the consequences of the nation's industrial ascendancy? Textbook treatments of what some historians call the "second industrial revolution"—the period of rapid and tumultuous economic expansion that stretched from the 1860s into the 1900s—can seem superficial and unsatisfying in comparison to neighboring sections on social change, political conflict, and cultural ferment. A better understanding of the story of coal, too often ignored by textbook authors, can provide students with important understandings about the nature of today's fossil-fueled world.

Like a Family: The Making of a Southern Cotton Mill World

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Photo, Doffers at the Bibb Mill No. 1, Lewis Hine, 1909, Like a Family.
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The companion to a book of the same name, this website offers selected oral history resources that examine lives in southern textile mill towns from the 1880s to the 1930s. The site is divided into three sections. "Life on the Land" discusses agricultural roots of the rural south, changes in farm labor after the Civil War, and economic factors that caused the transition to mill work in the late 19th century. "Mill Village and Factory" describes work in the mills and life in the company mill towns. "Work and Protest" discusses labor protests of the 1920s, formation of unions, and the textile strike of 1934.

The site contains 15 photographs and nearly 70 audio clips drawn from oral history interviews with descendants of millhands and others involved in the history of the Southern textile industry. There are valuable links to Southern history, oral history, and textile mill history websites. This site is ideal for studying rural southern life and labor history from Reconstruction through the 1930s.

Labor Arts

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Lithograph, "John Henry," William Gropper, Between 1897 and 1977
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A modestly-sized exhibition of visual materials from a variety of labor-related organizations that focuses on ways in which artists and others have celebrated working people and labor unions in 20th-century America. Includes 44 photographs, 19 images of leaflets and pamphlets, 13 buttons, badges, and ribbons, 25 examples of cartoon art, eight songbook and sheet music covers, six images from murals, and nine covers from the journal Labor Defender. Covers themes of workers at work, strikes, parades, demonstrations, and the civil rights movement. Provides exhibits on original art depicting labor, the New York City "culture of solidarity," and the early struggles of the Hotel and Motel Trades Council. Materials are identified with short descriptions of up to 100 words. Offers links to 61 related sites. Useful for those studying political uses of visual culture in 20th-century America.

Kheel Center Labor Photos

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Photo, ILGWU Local 318 on strike
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The International Ladies Garment Workers Union was formed in 1900, and for close to 100 years represented the interests of hundreds of thousands of workers in the women's-clothing industry. This collection of more than 1,000 photographs documents the activities of this union, which was particularly influential in the 1920s and 1930s. It includes scenes of workers in both the U.S. and Puerto Rico: at home and in shops and participating in marches, protests, celebrations, parades, and union actions. The various immigrant groups who have been involved in the industry, such as African Americans, Jewish Americans, Italian Americans, and Puerto Ricans are well represented. While some prominent labor leaders have been identified, most workers remain unidentified. The collection also includes five photographs by famed labor photographer Lewis Hine of New York street scenes from the early 20th century. More of the Kheel Center's larger collection of 33,000 photographs will be added to this website in the future.

Hard Hat Riots: An Online History Project

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Photo, Construction Workers with American Flag, New York Times
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A well-designed and innovative approach to teaching history, this site, designed by three PhD candidates at New York University, presents multifaceted perspectives on the May 8, 1970, attacks in New York City on Vietnam War protesters by hundreds of construction workers.

Users can enter the site by selecting any of 12 photographs, nine newspaper headlines, three places in the city where rioting occurred, or 10 summaries of views on the events and their meaning by historians and journalists. Selected items link to additional resources, including a police report and interviews with a student and a construction worker. The creators challenge users to fit the riots into wider contexts and to assess variant attempts at historical understanding.

Offers about a dozen suggested activities for high school and college teachers. Though limited in scope and quantity of material, this site is of great value to those studying social class in the Vietnam War era, labor history, and media influence in American life.

Flint Sit-Down Strike

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Photo, Genora Johnson with a very..., c. 1936-1937, Flint Sit-Down Strike
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This rich, multimedia resource provides an introduction to "the greatest strike in American history." The six-week occupation of the General Motors plant at Flint, Michigan, in 1936–37, was led by the recently-formed United Auto Workers. Using the new tactic of remaining in the plant rather than picketing outside, the strikers stopped production and won many demands.

The site begins with a short introductory essay and a small bibliography and webography. The three main sections—organization, strike, and aftermath—provide nearly 100 audio interviews recorded between 1978 and 1984 with former strikers recalling work conditions prior to the strike, experiences during the sit-in, the hostile reaction of Flint residents, the role of the Women's Auxiliary, and conditions following the strike. Each section includes a narrative essay. In addition the site presents slideshows, an audio timeline, and a Flash-generated strike map with textual and audio links.

Digital Resource Guide for the Labor Archives of Washington State

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Photo, Camp Ferry crew on their way to lunch, 1939, WPA, Uni. of Washington
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The Digital Resource Guide for the Labor Archives of Washington State exists for one purpose—to break down and make accessible the contents of the University of Washington's labor collections. To begin, simply scroll down or select "Topics" from the top navigation bar to view five categories within the collections. From there, make your choice, and find a summary of the collection contents alongside links.

"The I.W.W. in the Pacific Northwest" offers access to ephemera, newspaper clippings, personal accounts, and photographs related to the 1916 Everett Massacre and the 1919 Centralia Massacre; letters and documents concerning opposition to the I.W.W.; and local Wobblie charters, letters, and manuscripts.

"The Seattle General Strike and Its Aftermath" includes photographs and documents from the strike; notes, letters, reports, news clippings, and ephemera related to the Central Labor Council of Seattle in the 1920s and 1930s; documents pertaining to the Seattle Union Record, the CLC's newspaper; documents related to Henry Ault, an editor of the paper; and letters, manuscripts, ephemera, and photographs concerning Anna Louise Strong, advocate of laborer and children's rights.

Look to "Anti-Labor Reactions and Labor Espionage" for photos and documents from the Spruce Production Division and the Loyal Legion of Loggers and Lumbermen; speeches, articles, and letters by the Associated Industries; and 1919 and 1920 reports from spies within the labor movement.

"Labor and the New Deal" leads to photographs only. Here, you can find more than 450 photographs related to the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, Civil Works Administration, the CCC, and Works Progress Administration workers at the Grand Coulee Dam and elsewhere.

Finally, "Labor in the Modern Era" emphasizes Cesar Chavez and the farmworkers' movement, as well as protests held at the 1999 World Trade Organization meeting. Resources include posters, interviews, fliers, pamphlets, and photographs.