Disability History Museum

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Image, "The Polio Chronicle," Bolte Gibson, 1932, Disability History Museum
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This ongoing project was designed to present materials on the historical experiences of those with disabilities. The website currently presents nearly 800 documents and more than 930 still images dating from the late 18th century to the present.

Subjects are organized according to categories of advocacy, types of disability, government, institutions, medicine, organizations, private life, public life, and personal names. Documents include articles, poems, pamphlets, speeches, letters, book excerpts, and editorials.

Of special interest are documents from the Roosevelt Warm Springs Institute for Rehabilitation Archives, including the Polio Chronicle, a journal published by patients at Warm Springs, Georgia, from 1931 to 1934. Images include photographs, paintings, postcards, lithographs, children's book illustrations, and 19th-century family photographs, as well as postcard views of institutions, beggars, charity events, and types of wheelchairs.

California as I Saw It: First-Person Narratives of California, 1849-1900

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Image, Miner and Pack Burro, unidentified publication, California as I Saw It
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The 190 works presented on this site—approximately 40,000 written pages and more than 3,000 illustrations—provide eyewitness accounts covering California history from the Gold Rush through the end of the 19th century. Most authors represented are white, educated, male Americans, including reporters detailing Gold Rush incidents and visitors from the 1880s attracted to a highly-publicized romantic vision of California life.

The narratives, in the form of diaries, descriptions, guidebooks, and subsequent reminiscences, portray encounters with those living in California as well as the impact of mining, ranching, and agriculture. Additional topics include urban development, the growth of cities, and California's unique place in American culture. A special presentation recounts early California history, and a discussion of the collection's strengths and weaknesses provides useful context for the first-person accounts.

American Broadsides and Ephemera, Series I, 1760-1900

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Logo, Readex
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This subscription-only website presents an extensive archive of documents relevant to early U.S. history, offering full-color facsimile images of approximately 30,000 broadsides and ephemera. Advertisements, campaign literature, poems, juvenile literature, and Civil War envelopes comprise the bulk of the collection, making the archive especially valuable for those interested in early American consumer culture, political campaigns, and literary life. The collection also contains rich information on slavery, Native American relations, and local events—plays, gatherings, and religious events.

Users can browse the archive by category: Genre, Subjects, Author, History of Printing, Place of Publication, and Language. Simple and advanced searches are available, enabling easy access into this large collection of documents. For those with access, this site provides an extensive resource for researching 18th- and 19th-century North America.

Accessible Archives

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Image, Godey's Lady's Book, Accessible Archives
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These eight databases present more than 176,000 articles from 18th- and 19th-century newspapers, magazines, books, and genealogical records. Much of the material comes from Pennsylvania and other mid-Atlantic states.

Godey’s Lady’s Book (1830–1880), one of the most popular 19th-century publications, furnished middle- and upper-class American women with fiction, fashion illustrations, and editorials. The Pennsylvania Gazette (1728–1800), a Philadelphia newspaper, is described as the New York Times of the 18th century. The Civil War: A Newspaper Perspective includes major articles from the Charleston Mercury, the New York Herald, and the Richmond Enquirer. African-American Newspapers: The 19th Century includes runs from six newspapers published in New York, Washington, DC, and Toronto between 1827 and 1876. American County Histories to 1900 provides 60 volumes covering the local history of New Jersey, Delaware, and Pennsylvania. The Pennsylvania Genealogical Catalogue: Chester County 1809–1870 has been partially digitized, with 25,000 records available. The Pennsylvania Newspaper Record: Delaware County 1819–1870 addresses industrialization in a rural area settled by Quaker farmers.

Thomas Jefferson Digital Archive

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Logo, Thomas Jefferson Digital Archive
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More than 1,700 texts written by or to Thomas Jefferson are available on this website, including correspondence, books, addresses, and public papers. While most texts are presented in transcribed, word-searchable format, 18 appear as color images of original manuscripts.

The site also includes a biography of Jefferson written in 1834, eight years after his death. The Jeffersonian Cyclopedia, published in 1900, organizes more than 9,000 quotes according to theme and other categories. A collection of 2,700 excerpts from Jefferson's writings present his political philosophy. A wealth of searchable bibliographic listings is provided, including two previously published volumes and thousands of additional bibliographic references.

Also available are a recent dissertation on the construction of the Jefferson-designed University of Virginia (UVA), listings from the Oxford English Dictionary that show Jefferson's influence on English-language usage, and four links to UVA exhibitions on Jefferson.

Women in America: 1820 to 1842

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Portrait, Alexis de Tocqueville, 1831
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This site, created by a graduate student, presents fragments of 18 texts that discuss the condition of women written by visitors to the United States between 1820 to 1842. Authors include Charles Dickens, Alexis de Tocqueville, Charles Lyell, Michel Chevalier, and James Fenimore Cooper. The 13 topics include marriage and courtship, work, government, education, race, arts and entertainment, fashion, travel, prisons, wilderness, health, Indians, and religion. The primary purpose of the site—to ascertain the accuracy of "the picture of women in [Tocqueville's] Democracy in America" and "what parts of women's lives" Tocqueville and [Gustave de] Beaumont "missed"—suggests that it is best regarded as an exercise in simple description, not interpretation or even exposition of the texts. These particular concerns indeed mean that users will not be able to draw conclusions about Tocqueville's social or political theory, for instance, since the site does not ask what the omissions actually mean for the texts involved. The site is useful on its own terms, which some students may find compelling. But others may find it narrow and awkward. In either case, it should be read with questions of context and purpose in mind. Also offers a 20-item bibliography.

Yale Digital Commons

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Painted lead, Lead dinosaur, 1947, Yale University Art Gallery
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The Yale Digital Commons provides access to sources from the Yale Center for British Art, Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale University Art Gallery, Yale University Library, and Yale University on iTunes U.

Getting acquainted with the commons can be somewhat daunting. Arrival on the homepage simply offers a keyword search with only a slight indication of the extent or content types of the collections you can search. The description states the contents include "art, natural history, books, and maps, as well as photos, audio, and video documenting people, places, and events that form part of Yale's institutional identity and contribution to scholarship."

The best way to proceed is to select Advanced Search. From here, you can limit a search to items available online. You can also pick one or more of the aforementioned institutions to search within, or choose specific collections which range from African Art or American Decorative Arts to Vertebrate Zoology or Yale University.

Sources you can find using this system include apparel; architectural elements; arms and armor; books, coins, and medals; calligraphy; containers; drawings and watercolors; flatware; fossils; furniture; hardware; inscriptions; lighting devices; jewelry; manuscripts and documents; masks; minerals; miniatures; models; mosaics; musical instruments; packaging; paintings; photographs; plant and animal remains; print templates; scientific instruments; stained glass; textiles; tools and equipment; timepieces; toys and games; sculpture; and wallpaper.

Freedom's Story: Teaching African American Literature and History

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Photo, Frederick Douglass, head-and-shoulders portrait, facing right, LoC
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This collection of 20 essays on African American history and literature, commissioned from leading scholars and written for secondary teachers, is part of the larger TeacherServe site. The essays are designed to deepen content knowledge and provide new ideas for teaching. These 3,000-7,000-word essays cover three time periods: 1609-1865, 1865-1917, and 1917 and Beyond.

Essays begin with an overview of the topic. A “Guiding Discussion” section offers suggestions on introducing the subject to students, and “Historians Debate” notes secondary sources with varied views on the topic. Notes and additional resources complete each essay. Each essay includes links to primary source texts in the National Humanities Center’s Toolbox Library.

Essays in "1609-1865" focus on topics related to slavery, including families under the slavery system, slave resistance, types of slave labor, the end of slavery, analyzing slave narratives, and the work of Frederick Douglass and Harriet Jacobs. Essays also look at African American arts and crafts and African influence on African American culture.

Essays in "1865-1917" focus on topics that fall between the eras of slavery and the Civil Rights Movement, including Reconstruction, segregation, trickster figures in African American literature, and issues of class and social division.

Essays in "1917 and Beyond" focus on literature and the Civil Rights Movement, including protest poetry, the Harlem Renaissance, and jazz in literature.

Archival Research Catalog (ARC)

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ARC offers more than 78,000 digital government resources. Materials include textual records, photographs, maps, architectural drawings, artifacts, sound recordings, and motion pictures dating from the colonial period to the recent past. ARC includes items on presidents, the military, war, immigration, Japanese-American internment, slavery, science, prisons, federal programs, the environment, the National Park Service, foreign affairs, civil rights, African Americans, and American Indians.

To begin a search, click on the yellow "search" button near the top left of the ARC webpage. The search engine is clearly organized and invites queries on specific historical materials or general themes. To access digitized materials only, check the box marked "Descriptions of Archival Materials linked to digital copies." The site continues to expand, though, as it stands, it provides an exceptional collection of government material.

The Standardization of American English

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scanned image, Pennsylvania paper currency, June 1764, Franklin and Hall, LOC
Question

Why did American colonists spell so poorly?

Answer

Although colonial Americans did not spell consistently, we should not assume that they were careless writers. The invention of the printing press and the Reformation’s encouragement of literacy helped to standardize spelling, but European nations and their colonies only slowly established consistent spelling rules. As late as the Revolution, the mix of cultures and languages and the small but growing number of presses slowed the progress of spelling standards in America.

According to the 1790 census, about 20% of the new nation’s population spoke a language other than English as their first language.

Not all residents of Anglo-America used English as their first language. The British colonies contained French- and German-language schools, and many Americans read non-English newspapers and attended non-English religious services. In 1751, for example, Benjamin Franklin expressed concern about the proliferation of German-language newspapers, legal documents, and street signs in culturally diverse Pennsylvania. Even after the Revolution, a significant number of Americans continued to speak a native language other than English. In 1777 the Articles of Confederation were printed in French, and the Continental Congress printed some proceedings in German. According to the 1790 census, about 20% of the new nation’s population spoke a language other than English as their first language. Because of the assortment of languages in the new nation, residents placed little emphasis on standardization of spelling.

In the early republic, however, language became an important consideration in creating a culturally distinctive nation. As they tried to create their own identity, a few Americans began to distinguish American language from English through changes in spelling and punctuation. One of the biggest proponents of language reform was Noah Webster, a New England lawyer and scholar. Webster argued that even the smallest regional differences in spelling and pronunciation could turn into political difference, resulting in dangerous factions. He traveled around the U.S. giving lectures about standardizing the English language, and in his travels he met Benjamin Franklin, who shared Webster’s concerns about language reform. Franklin proposed deleting the letters c, w, y, and j and adding six new letters to the American alphabet. Webster, however, did not like the idea of adding or subtracting letters, but rather he wanted to simplify the spelling of words—changing favour to favor, for example, or replacing the -re with -er in centre/center and theatre/theater, in order to match spelling with pronunciation. Webster’s speller, which he first published in 1783, and his American Dictionary of the English Language (1828) helped to facilitate homogenization. Also in this time period, printers began to standardize spelling in order to make the printing process more efficient.

Not all of Webster’s standardization ideas took. For example, words such as “through,” “bureau,” and “laugh” are still not spelled as they sound. Moreover, American reformers instituted spelling standards gradually. Manuscripts from the 19th and 20th centuries still reveal irregular spelling, although we can attribute much of that to inconsistent access to education and uneven educational standards. Luckily these days we have spell check!

For more information

Dillard, J.L. A History of American English. New York: Longman Publishing, 1992.

Simpson, David. The Politics of American English, 1776-1850. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986.

Websites of Interest:
Film Study Center, Harvard University, “How to Read 18th Century British-American Writing.” DoHistory.org. Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media.

Noah Webster biography at the Noah Webster House website.

Bibliography

Baron, Dennis E. Grammar and Good Taste: Reforming the American Language. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1982.

Lepore, Jill. A Is For American: Letters and Other Characters in the Newly United States. New York: Vintage Books, 2003.

Webster, Noah. The Autobiographies of Noah Webster. Edited by Richard M. Rollins. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1989.